卷 30, 编号 2 (2026): LANGUAGE POLICY IN MULTIETHNIC COUNTRIES

This introductory article surveys current theoretical and methodological trends in language policy research in multilingual and multiethnic societies, with particular attention to the post-Soviet space and the Russian Federation. Drawing on structural, critical, ecological, and urban sociolinguistic approaches, the paper traces the evolution of language policy scholarship from early language planning models to contemporary frameworks emphasizing multilingualism, globalization, social inequality, and linguistic revitalization. The discussion integrates key concepts such as language management, linguistic markets, speech accommodation, superdiversity, and decolonial critiques of the “native speaker” paradigm. Particular attention is paid to the tensions between top-down state management and bottom-up language practices, especially in urban multilingual settings and endangered language communities. The growing role of language documentation and revitalization is also examined, highlighting current initiatives in Russia aimed at preserving linguistic diversity through scientifically grounded and community-centered approaches. Finally, the paper introduces the contributions to this special issue, which collectively explore language policy, identity, multilingual education, language maintenance, and revitalization across a range of global and local contexts. Together, the volume demonstrates that multilingualism is a normative social condition requiring flexible, multi-scalar, and socially responsive policy frameworks.

This study examines whether it is socially feasible for a country to accommodate minority languages alongside a national language without this leading to tensions, violence or separatist movements. The aim of this article therefore is to discuss and clarify the relationship between national languages and minority languages, so that there is sufficient social space and appreciation for minority languages without detracting from the importance of a national language. This study comprises a review of the literature, beginning with the period in which national standard languages emerged and were codified, and culminating in the conviction that a country should be monolingual and that minority and regional languages should be eradicated. Particular attention is paid to the linguistic ideas of the French Revolution and German Romanticism. The violent consequences of such a policy of linguistic essentialism are illustrated by examples of the language disputes in Spain and Belgium. Next, again based on a review of the literature, the study examines the late 20th century response at (Western) European level to the violent actions of oppressed linguistic minorities. It emerges that a solution is sought in a specifically anti-essentialist approach, characterized by inclusiveness, diversity and tolerance. This approach is proving successful. The results show that a policy less focused on centralization and standardization can provide space for minority languages without detracting from the status of the national language, thereby preventing potential tensions and violent actions. The article therefore concludes with a plea to promote an approach, which emphasizes diversity and therefore tolerant attitudes.

This study applies the framework of the ecology of language, defined by Einar Haugen as the study of interactions between a language and its environment, to evaluate the reliability of population census data for sociolinguistic analysis. Focusing on the 2020-2021 Russian Census, the paper investigates its usefulness in describing language situations among indigenous minorities in the north-east of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia). The study adopts a qualitative and critical analytical approach. First, general features of the census are assessed, including coverage completeness and the clarity and adequacy of terminology used in ethnic and linguistic categories. Second, the broader sociolinguistic context-particularly language endangerment in north-eastern Russia-is examined. Finally, selected census data are analyzed for ten indigenous languages: Aleut, Aliutor, Chukchi, Dolgan, Even, Evenki, Eskimo, Itel’men, Koryak, and Yukaghir. The analysis reveals inconsistencies in census outcomes, including unexpected increases and decreases in reported speaker populations across several languages. These fluctuations do not consistently align with established trends in language vitality or decline, raising questions about data reliability. The findings suggest that census responses are shaped more by speaker attitudes, identity, and self-perception than by actual language use or proficiency. Consequently, while the census provides valuable insights into sociocultural identification, it is less effective as a precise instrument for measuring linguistic vitality. This underscores the need for complementary methodologies in assessing minority language situations.

This study examines the gap between the multilingual realities of today’s classrooms and the continued dominance of monolingual norms in national education systems. The situation in the Netherlands is used as a case study to show a broader point. Although classrooms are becoming more linguistically diverse, immigrant and heritage languages remain marginalised, which contributes to unequal opportunities and exclusion. The purpose of this literature-based study is to show how national language policies shape classroom practices and teacher attitudes, and to assess whether these policies support inclusion or reinforce linguistic marginalisation. The material used consists mainly of international and Dutch peer-reviewed academic publications on multilingualism, language policy, and (multilingual) education, including empirical and comparative research across different national and international contexts. In addition, it includes key theoretical works as well as policy- and practice-oriented publications from governmental and international organizations, together providing a solid academic and policy foundation for research on multilingualism, education, and social justice. Special attention is given to how the ideas behind Dutch language policy influence fairness in education. The main findings show that Dutch education policy strongly prioritises Dutch as the only legitimate language of schooling. Immigrant languages such as Turkish, Arabiс and Polish are largely absent from curricula, assessment, in-class communication and teacher training. Many teachers still view students’ home languages as obstacles to learning. Although translanguaging and other inclusive strategies have been shown to improve participation, understanding, and students’ sense of belonging, their use remains limited and inconsistent because of institutional barriers and dominant language ideologies. Overall, the study demonstrates that linguistic inequality is reproduced by policy choices and their underlying ideologies and prejudices. The study suggests that meaningful inclusion requires coordinated reforms in teacher education, curriculum design, assessment practices, and language ideology. When linguistic diversity is treated as a resource, national policies can help create more equitable classrooms that value all students’ linguistic backgrounds.

This article examines the persistence and functions of Ukrainian lexical elements in the Russian-language speech of Sevastopol residents against the backdrop of shifting language policies and political transformations. The research problem arises from an observable paradox: although Ukrainian was widely resisted as a language of everyday communication during the period when Sevastopol belonged to Ukraine, elements of Ukrainian vocabulary nevertheless became embedded in local speech through prolonged exposure to media, education, and bureaucratic discourse. After 2014, when Ukrainian disappeared from official domains, some of these lexical elements continued to be used in everyday interaction. Over time, however, these traces have begun to fade, making it important to document them as residual linguistic phenomena. The aim of this study is to systematize the Ukrainian lexical elements present in the Russian speech of Sevastopol residents and to identify their sociolinguistic functions. The data were obtained through surveys and interviews, on the base of which a corpus of approximately 150 Ukrainian words and expressions was compiled. The corpus was analyzed using the methods of thematic classification, and functional-pragmatic analysis in order to determine patterns of distribution and communicative motivation. The results demonstrate that even language policies that fail to produce large-scale language shift can leave lexical residues in everyday speech. Ukrainian expressions persisted as tools of communicative efficiency, emotional expression, quotation, irony, and group identity. The study contributes to sociolinguistic theory by emphasizing that language policy outcomes must be evaluated not only through institutional indicators but also through everyday linguistic practices, where ideology, habit, and memory intersect.

The languages of Indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North of Russia are under the most serious threat. At the same time, population censuses record an increase in the number of those claiming to speak ethnic languages against the background of ongoing language shift, which raises the question of the nature of this phenomenon and its significance for the future of minority languages. The aim of this study is to investigate whether the languages spoken by the indigenous peoples in the North of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) are at risk of being lost or have the potential for revival. The materials comprised data from the All-Russian Population Censuses of 2010 and 2020, results of local sociolinguistic studies, and field research (2022-2024). The methods employed included comparative analysis of census data, critical juxtaposition of statistical and expert assessments, and sociolinguistic questionnaire surveys. The study revealed a discrepancy between the declared and actual language proficiency in censuses This may reflect the phenomenon of increasing symbolic power of languages while their communicative power declines. Indigenous languages of the North not only interact with Russian, but also with the Yakut language, which has historically served as a lingua franca in the region. The Evenki language demonstrates territorial heterogeneity of language processes: from predominantly symbolic functioning in Yakut-speaking Evenki communities to relative preservation in villages of Southern Yakutia, where intergenerational transmission has been weakened. We find that youth with actualized ethnic identity demonstrate high language loyalty regardless of actual language proficiency. The emergence of "new speakers" and the development of local language initiatives is interpreted as evidence of the transformation of symbolic power into practical action. The study revealed the transition of the languages of Indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North: from uncontrolled assimilation to conscious attempts at language revival. The success of this revival might depend on the ability to transform the increased symbolic power of languages into actual communicative practices.