“Stirring it up!” Emotionality in audience responses to political speeches

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Speaker-audience interaction in political speeches has been conceptualised as a form of dialogue between speaker and audience. Of particular importance is research pioneered by Atkinson (e.g., 1983, 1984a, 1984b) on the analysis of rhetorical devices utilised by politicians to invite audience applause. Atkinson was not concerned with emotionalisation in political speech-making, rather with how applause was invited in relation to group identities through ingroup praise and/or outgroup derogation. However, his theory has provided important insights into how speakers invite audience responses, and a powerful stimulus for associated research. The purpose of this article is to address the shortfall of emotionalisation research within the realm of political speeches. We begin with an account of Atkinson’s influential theory of rhetoric, followed by a relevant critique. The focus then turns to our main aim, namely, how key findings from previous speech research can be interpreted in terms of emotionalisation. Specifically, the focus is on audience responses to the words of political speakers, and how different forms of response may reflect audience emotionality. It is proposed that both duration and frequency of invited affiliative audience responses may indicate more positive emotional audience responses, while uninvited interruptive audience applause and booing may provide notable clues to issues on which audiences have strong feelings. It is concluded that there is strong evidence that both invited and uninvited audience responses may provide important clues to emotionalisation - both positive and negative - in political speeches.

作者简介

Peter Bull

University of York; University of Salford

编辑信件的主要联系方式.
Email: profpebull@gmail.com
ORCID iD: 0000-0003-4739-2892

Honorary Professor in Psychology at the Universities of York and Salford (UK), and a Fellow of the British Psychological Society. His principal interest is the detailed microanalysis of interpersonal communication, especially political discourse. He has over 100 academic publications, principally concerned with this theme (e.g., Bull, P. (2003) The Microanalysis of Political Communication: Claptrap and Ambiguity, London: Psychology Press).

York, YO10 5DD, UK

Maurice Waddle

University of York

Email: maurice.waddle@york.ac.uk
ORCID iD: 0000-0003-4679-7759

lectures in the Department of Psychology at the University of York, UK. His research focuses on political communication, particularly the phenomenon of ‘personalisation’. This includes personalised rhetoric used by politicians as a form of evasiveness in political interviews (‘playing the man, not the ball’) and personal attacks in UK Prime Minister’s Questions. He has publications in the Journal of Language and Social Psychology, Parliamentary Affairs, the Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict, and the Journal of Social & Political Psychology.

York, YO10 5DD, UK

参考

  1. Atkinson, J. Maxwell. 1983. Two devices for generating audience approval: A comparative study of public discourse and text. In Konrad Ehlich & Henk C. van Riemsdijk (eds.), Connectedness in Sentence, Discourse and Text, 199-236. Tilburg: Tilburg Papers in Linguistics
  2. Atkinson, J. Maxwell. 1984a. Our Masters' Voices: The Language and Body Language of Politics. London: Methuen
  3. Atkinson, J. Maxwell. 1984b. Public speaking and audience responses: Some techniques for inviting applause. In J. Maxwell Atkinson & John Heritage (eds.), Structures of Social Action: Studies in Conversation Analysis, 370-409. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
  4. Atkinson, J. Maxwell. 1985. Refusing invited applause: Preliminary observations from a case study of charismatic oratory. In Teun A. van Dijk (eds.), Handbook of Discourse Analysis: Volume 3 Discourse and Dialogue, 161-181. London: Academic Press
  5. Bull, Peter. 2000. Do audiences applaud only ‘claptrap’ in political speeches? An analysis of invited and uninvited applause. Social Psychology Review 2. 32-41.
  6. Bull, Peter. 2006. Invited and uninvited applause in political speeches. British Journal of Social Psychology 45. 563-578. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466605X55440
  7. Bull, Peter. 2016. Claps and claptrap: The analysis of speaker-audience interaction in political speeches. Journal of Social and Political Psychology 4 (1). 473-492. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v4i1.436
  8. Bull, Peter & Ofer Feldman. 2011. Invitations to affiliative audience responses in Japanese political speeches. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 30. 158-176. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X10397151
  9. Bull, Peter & Karolis Miskinis. 2015. Whipping it up! An analysis of audience responses to political rhetoric in speeches from the 2012 American presidential elections. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 34 (5). 521-538. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X14564466
  10. Bull, Peter & Merel Noordhuizen. 2000. The mistiming of applause in political speeches. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 19. 275-294. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X00019003001
  11. Bull, Peter & Pam Wells. 2002. By invitation only? An analysis of invited and uninvited applause. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 21. 230-244. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X02021003002
  12. Clayman, Steven E. 1993. Booing: The anatomy of a disaffiliative response. American Sociological Review 58 (1). 110-130. https://doi.org/10.2307/2096221
  13. Duncan, Starkey & Donald W. Fiske. 1985. Interaction Structure and Strategy. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  14. Feldman, Ofer & Peter Bull. 2012. Understanding audience affiliation in response to political speeches in Japan. Language and Dialogue 2 (3). 375-397. https://doi.org/10.1075/ld.2.3.04fel
  15. Goode, Ewan J. K. & Peter Bull. 2020. Time does tell: An analysis of observable audience responses from the 2016 American presidential campaigns. Journal of Social and Political Psychology 8 (1). 368-387. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v8i1.953
  16. Heritage, John & David Greatbatch. 1986. Generating applause: A study of rhetoric and response at party political conferences. American Journal of Sociology 92 (1). 110-157. https://doi.org/10.1086/228465
  17. Iversen, Stine & Peter Bull. 2016. Rhetorical devices and audience responses in Norwegian political speeches. Politics, Culture & Socialization 7 (1-2). 97-118. https://doi.org/10.3224/pcs.v7i1-2.06
  18. Jefferson, Gail. 1990. List-construction as a task and resource. In George Psathas (eds.), Interaction Competence, 63-92. Lanham: University Press of America.
  19. Ledoux, Sarah & Peter Bull. 2017. Order in disorder: Audience responses and political rhetoric in speeches from the second round of the 2012 French presidential election. Pragmatics & Society 8 (4). 520-541. https://doi.org/10.1075/ps.8.4.03led
  20. O’Gorman, Victoria & Peter Bull. 2021. Applause invitations in political speeches: A comparison of two British party political leaders (Theresa May and Jeremy Corbyn). Parliamentary Affairs 74 (2). 354-377. https://doi.org/10.1093/pa/gsaa006
  21. Walker, Michael B. 1982. Smooth transitions in conversational turn-taking: Implications for theory. The Journal of Psychology 110. 31-37. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1982.9915322

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