Метафорические ландшафты счастья: когнитивно-семантический анализ на языках хинди и бенгали

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1. Introduction

Emotion plays a crucial role in human cognition, communication, and behaviour. Being a traditional object of psychology, nowadays emotions have been actively studied by linguists, demonstrating an “emotional turn in linguistics” (Lüdtke 2015: ix, Mackenzie & Alba-Juez 2019, Zappettinni 2021, among many others). Language profoundly influences and mirrors the cultural comprehension of emotions. A culture’s understanding of emotions is built and shown through language. The way emotions are conceptualized and expressed varies across languages and cultures (e.g. Alba-Juez & Larina 2018, Wierzbicka 1999).

While biologically based, emotional expression is culturally and cognitively structured. The Conceptual Act Theory (CAT) emphasizes language’s role in shaping emotional interpretation (Lindquist et al. 2015), necessitating cross-cultural studies (Lindquist 2021). Idioms and proverbs, repositories of cultural wisdom (Mieder & Bryan 1997), reveal how communities conceptualize emotions, offering crucial insights for psychology, linguistics, and affective computing. Linguistically, metaphors, especially in idioms and proverbs, map abstract emotions onto concrete domains, aiding conceptualization and expression (Kövecses & Szabco 1996). This metaphorical mapping reveals universal and culturally specific emotional understandings, providing insights into linguistic, cognitive, and cultural dimensions of emotion (Kövecses 2000, 2005, 2015).

Most of the explorations based on Happiness emotion metaphor research were found to be based on Western, Middle Eastern, and East Asian languages (Zoltán 2008, Tissari 2008, Goddard & Ye 2016, Gomez 2020, Pollard 2021, Stefanowitsch 2004, Hamdi 2016, Ahmed 2016, Safarnejad et al. 2013, 2014, Seidi et al. 2021, Rajeg 2016, 2019, Yu 1995, Chen 2010, Liu & Li 2016, Csillag 2016). However, there is a dearth of substantial scholarly works on emotion metaphor research in South Asian languages, particularly Indian languages such as Hindi and Bangla from the cognitive linguistics perspective, apart from Patowari (2015), Sharma (2017, 2018) Goswami & Yadav (2024), Ballav (2025) and Paul et. al. (2024).

Therefore, this study aims to uncover the similarities and differences  in conceptualization of happiness in Hindi and Bangla, and  identify  socio-cultural, religious, and philosophical factors that influence the construction of emotional meaning. This study investigates the conceptual metaphors underlying idiomatic, proverbial and colloquial expressions of happiness in Hindi and Bangla and explores the socio-cultural factors influencing metaphor formation in both languages.

Key research questions include:

1. What are the conceptual metaphors shaping happiness expressions in Hindi and Bangla?
2. How do these conceptualizations compare across the two languages?
3. What socio-cultural factors contribute to the creation of happiness metaphors?

The paper proceeds with a literature review (Section 2), data and methodology (Section 3), analysis and findings on Hindi and Bangla metaphors (Section 4), discussion of universal and culture-specific patterns (Section 5), and concludes with key insights and implications (Section 6).

2. Literature review on the conceptualization of Happiness across cultures and languages

The study of happiness metaphors is deeply rooted in cognitive linguistics, where metaphorical language structures abstract concepts. Kövecses (2008) explores four cognitive components shaping our understanding of happiness: conceptual metaphors, conceptual metonymies, related concepts, and cognitive/cultural models. He identifies three cognitive models of happiness: happiness as an immediate response, happiness as a value, and happiness as being glad. Kövecses (2008) highlights the roles of evaluative metaphors (for appraising happiness) and phenomenological metaphors (for experiential aspects) and advocates combining top-down and bottom-up approaches to provide a comprehensive understanding of happiness, considering its diverse causes and responses.

Drawing on Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) (Lakoff & Johnson 1980), Păstae (2019) explores how metaphors structure the concept of joy within cognitive and cultural frameworks. The study highlights metaphors such as joy as fluid, heat, and natural force, showing how Idealised Cognitive Models (ICMs) help organise abstract emotional experience and support meaning construction.

 The embodiment hypothesis, as discussed by Sharma (2017), posits that language encodes both physical and socio-cultural experiences. The study identifies metaphorical concepts like happiness is vegetation, where happiness is associated with natural imagery such as blossoms, flowering, greenery, and harvests. This reflects an extroverted cultural outlook, contrasting with the Chinese metaphor happiness is flowers in the heart, which suggests a more introverted perspective. These linguistic structures illustrate how metaphors are grounded in cultural and physical experiences. Hindi idioms and phrases are not just fixed expressions but are dynamic linguistic constructs that encode the socio-cultural realities of Hindi-speaking communities. This aligns with the embodiment hypothesis, which asserts that language reflects the historical and cultural experiences of its speakers. Additionally, the diversity of Hindi phraseology is highlighted through its rich lexical variations for happiness, such as “kʰuʃi” and “ʃukʰ,” which vary across regional and cultural contexts. 

2.1. Cross-linguistic and cross-cultural perspectives

While metaphorical expressions of emotions stem from universal human experiences, they are also shaped by cultural contexts. Yu (1995) compares happiness metaphors in Chinese and English, identifying shared patterns like happiness is up/light/container. However, Chinese metaphors more frequently reference body parts, especially internal organs, influenced by cultural frameworks such as yin-yang theory and traditional medicine. Despite linguistic differences, the study highlights the universal bodily grounding of emotion metaphors, with cultural contexts shaping their specific expressions.

Chen (2010) analyses idiomatic expressions in English and Chinese, highlighting both shared and culture-specific happiness metaphors. While happy is up is common in both languages (e.g., “walk on air”), English emphasizes outward joy, whereas Chinese associates being “off the ground” with boastfulness, reflecting cultural values of modesty. The study underscores how metaphors shape emotional expression, balancing universal bodily experiences with cultural specificity, and emphasizes their role in cross-cultural communication.

Safarnejad et al. (2013, 2014) examine the translation of Persian happiness metaphors into English, highlighting challenges arising from cultural and cognitive differences. Using the Metaphor Identification Procedure (MIP) and CMT (Lakoff and Johnson 1980), they identify universal metaphors like happy is up alongside culturally specific ones. Translation difficulties stem from cultural nuances, lack of direct equivalence, and cognitive domain differences. The studies stress the need for balancing literal and conceptual equivalence and underscore the importance of metaphorical competence in translation for effective cross-cultural communication.

Ahmed (2016) delves into metaphoric parallels between Arabic and English, identifying shared metaphors, such as sadness as a burden (“down in the dumps” in English, “Sadness has broken her back” in Arabic) and happiness as uplifting (“on cloud nine” in English, “She flew because she was happy” in Arabic). The study highlights cultural nuances but concludes that metaphorical expressions of emotions reflect universal human experiences, offering insights into how language shapes emotional understanding across cultures.

2.2. Metaphors in literature, media, and historical contexts

Metaphors serve as powerful linguistic tools that enhance the richness of language and convey complex ideas and emotions. They are prevalent across literature, media, and historical contexts, shaping our understanding of various themes.

Tissari (2008) used the ARCHER (A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers, 1650–1990) corpus to analyze “hap(p)” and “joy” words, revealing that “hap(p)” terms are more common, while “joy” conveys stronger emotions. The study showed happiness’s connection to love and social relationships, highlighted metaphorical expressions like “happiness is a journey,” and explored contrasting concepts like grief. This research illuminates the cognitive and cultural aspects of historical happiness expressions.

Rajeg (2016, 2019) used corpus-based quantitative analysis to explore Indonesian happiness near-synonyms (kesenangan, kegembiraan, kebahagiaan), identifying distinct metaphorical profiles and 62 differentiating metaphors, including happiness is a location. This research highlights lexeme-specific metaphorical nuances in Indonesian emotion expression.

Pollard (2021) examined 20th-century American poets’ use of happiness metaphors, showing both conventional (e.g., “happiness is light”) and novel expressions, emphasizing cultural influence and advocating metaphor theory in literary analysis. Gomez (2020) critiqued Cosmopolitan magazine’s happiness discourse, revealing neoliberal ideologies where happiness is framed as personal responsibility and tied to consumerism, demonstrating how media metaphors can reinforce social norms.

2.3. Comparative studies across languages

Stefanowitsch (2004) highlights differences in metaphorical patterns for “happiness” in English and “Glück” in German, showing variations in emotional intensity and cultural beliefs, with metaphors like emotion-as-liquid and experiencer-as-container shaping these experiences. 

Al-Sharif (2007) examines happiness and anger metaphors in English and Arabic, revealing that while both languages share basic-level metaphors, significant cultural-specific variations are influenced by factors such as climate and lifestyle. The study finds that anger metaphors are more prevalent than happiness metaphors in both languages. Using the CMT (Lakoff & Johnson 1980) and analysing a corpus of 345 expressions, the research underscores the role of cultural context in shaping emotional expressions.  Goddard and Ye (2016) emphasise the need for a non-Anglocentric approach to studying emotions, advocating for cultural contextualisation and the use of the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) (Wierzbicka 1996) to explore emotional expressions across languages. They argue that emotions are shaped by cultural contexts, cautioning against assuming universal meanings for English terms, and promoting cultural sensitivity to avoid misinterpretations.

Csillag (2016) investigates happiness metaphors in English and Russian, noting that the Russian terms for happiness (schast’e and radost’) differ significantly from the English term. The metaphor happiness is a valuable commodity is notably more prominent in Russian culture, illustrating how cultural factors influence linguistic expression. Csillag emphasises the interplay of physiological, psychological, and linguistic elements in understanding emotions, highlighting their complexity as both concepts and expressions within different cultural contexts.

Shah and Sharar (2018) analyze happiness metaphors in English and Khowar, finding shared metaphors like happy is up but noting cultural variations—Khowar speakers express happiness indirectly through objects, while English speakers are more direct. Using CMT (Lakoff & Johnson 1980) and qualitative content analysis, they highlight cultural influences on emotional expression. Similarly, Liu and Li (2016) compare joy and anger metaphors in English and Chinese, identifying shared container metaphors for joy but cultural differences—English emphasizes the body, while Chinese focuses on the heart. For anger, both use fire metaphors, but English also employs fluid, while Chinese includes gas, reflecting cultural nuances. Hamdi (2016) examines happiness metaphors in English, Spanish, and Tunisian Arabic, revealing cultural differences—English links happiness to heaven, Spanish to virus, medicine, and path, while Tunisian Arabic links extreme happiness with insanity or death. These studies emphasize the cognitive and cultural role of metaphors in shaping emotional expression.

Seidi et al. (2021) compare happiness metaphors in English and Laki, identifying shared metaphors like happiness is up, light, fluid in a container, and animalistic behavior. A unique Laki metaphor, happiness is being in possession of something, reflects cultural specificity. Using CMT (Lakoff & Johnson 1980) and Kövecses’ (2008) emotion models, the study highlights both universal and culturally shaped metaphors. Moreno-Ortiz et al. (2022) use NLP to analyze self-reported happy moments, revealing diverse sources of happiness, including consumerism, and demonstrating that happiness is not solely defined by positive words. Their study underscores the complexity of happiness in language and its commercial influences.

The reviewed literature demonstrates that while conceptual metaphors for happiness share universal elements rooted in embodied human experiences, their specific manifestations vary significantly across cultures. These variations highlight the influence of societal values, linguistic structures, and historical contexts on emotional expression. Understanding these metaphoric frameworks enriches cognitive linguistic research and fosters cross-cultural empathy and communication.

3. Data and methodology

This study employed a multi-faceted approach to collect and analyse 100 figurative expressions (50 Hindi and 50 Bangla) related to happiness, drawing on both digital and print sources. The dataset was compiled through purposive thematic sampling of idiomatic and proverbial constructions. A systematic keyword-based search was conducted using core lexical items for each language to ensure semantic focus and balanced representation.

Hindi (H) / Bangla (B): kʰuʃi (H,B) (happiness/joy), həsi (H) / haʃi (B) (laughter, smile), anand̪ (H) / anond̪o (B) (joy) , sukʰ (H) / ʃukʰ (B) (happiness, well-being)

Hindi data were collected primarily from literary and cultural websites¹ as well as general knowledge and educational blogs², while Bangla data were drawn from literary and cultural blogs³ and established print sources, notably Bangla Pravada (A Collection of 9,100 Bengali Proverbs) by Shri Sushilkumar De and 98 Drishtanta Bakya Samgraha edited by Chakraborty, Barun Kumar.

Following data collection, the corpus underwent systematic refinement: literal usages were excluded, extraneous contextual material removed, and only idiomatic and culturally embedded figurative constructions retained. The resulting dataset therefore reflects culturally salient metaphorical encodings of happiness rather than general lexical references.

The analysis adopted an inductive, bottom-up orientation, proceeding from linguistic form to conceptual structure without imposing predefined metaphor categories. Non-literal units were identified through contextual–basic meaning comparison using an adapted MIP, supplemented by collocational analysis to detect recurrent imagery (e.g., water, light, elevation, sweetness). Expressions were iteratively clustered according to shared semantic features until coherent conceptual domains emerged. These included fluidity, illumination, verticality, vegetation and seasonality, sweetness, movement, intoxication, temporality, possession/value, and embodied physiological manifestations. Broader conceptual mappings (e.g., happiness is fluid, happiness is light) were inferred only after domain stabilization.

A structured cross-linguistic comparison then identified shared embodied schemas and language-specific mappings, interpreted in relation to ecological, religious, philosophical, and cultural practices. Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff & Johnson 1980) and Extended CMT (Kövecses 2020) were applied at the interpretive stage to situate findings within cognitive linguistic scholarship while preserving the study’s bottom-up design. The following section presents the emergent metaphorical patterns shaping the conceptualization of happiness in Hindi and Bangla.

4. Analysis and findings – conceptual metaphors in Hindi and Bangla

This section presents the metaphorical patterns associated with the Hindi and Bangla lexemes examined in the study. Rather than analysing an abstract universal concept of ‘happiness’, the discussion focuses on the metaphorical structures associated with the lexical items kʰuʃi, anond̪o/anand̪, ʃukʰ/sukʰ, and haʃi/həsi.

4.1. kʰuʃi (happiness/joy)

Expressions containing kʰuʃi reveal several recurring metaphorical schemas that structure the conceptualization of positive emotional states in Hindi and Bangla discourse.

i. HAPPINESS IS FLOOD

The metaphor appears vividly in contemporary media discourse, where intense joy is portrayed as a natural, overflowing force.

kʰuʃi                  me:     bəh       dʒana                                                 (Hindi)

happiness         LOC     flow     go-PFV.3SG

(1) “To be flooded by happiness”

The metaphor presents ‘happiness’ as an overwhelming natural force, reflecting the conceptual metaphor intense emotions are forces of nature and highlighting its uncontrollable, transformative power. In Hindi-speaking regions, the Ganga and Yamuna embody natural power and sacred renewal. This dual role of devastation and regeneration mirrors ‘happiness’ as both overwhelming and transformative.

ii. HAPPINESS IS FLUID

‘Happiness’ is conceptualized as an immersive and overwhelming experience in both Hindi and Bangla, akin to being submerged in liquid. It evokes imagery of being drenched, enveloped, or carried away, emphasizing deep emotional engagement where external surroundings fade. This metaphor reflects a universal cognitive and cultural mapping, where emotions are understood as tangible substances that can fill, overwhelm, or transport a person.

o HAPPINESS IS FLUID IN A CONTAINER

(Specific level metaphor of the generic level metaphor – happiness is fluid)

happiness is fluid is a generic metaphor. In both Hindi and Bangla, ‘happiness’ is conceptualized as fluid in a container: the body or mind serves as the container, and intense ‘joy’ causes the liquid to overflow, reflecting embodied experiences of emotional expression.

A contemporary Hindi news headline illustrates this metaphor:

                                                                                                                        (Hindi)

pɾəd̪ʰaːn.mən.t̪riː   ke       sənsəd̪i.jə     kʃet̪ɾə waːɾaːnaːsiː meː   t͡ʃʰəlkiːn           kʰuʃijã⁴

Prime-Minister  GEN parliamentary  area   Varanasi   LOC spill-PFV.F.PL happiness.PL

(2) “In the Prime Minister’s constituency Varanasi, happiness spilled over.”

This usage shows ‘happiness’ presented as a fluid that escapes containment, marking intensity, collectivity, and public celebration — all central elements in the emotional-fluid schema.

iii. HAPPINESS IS INTOXICATION

In both Bangla and Hindi, intense ‘joy’ is metaphorically likened to intoxication, producing euphoria, light-headedness, and detachment from reality. The metaphor is also metonymic, since intense happiness produces bodily and psychological effects resembling intoxication. This cause–effect link anchors the metaphor in embodied experience, making the emotion more tangible.

A media usage example in Bangla further demonstrates this metaphor in collective emotional context:

                                                                                                                       (Bangla)

ɔboʃeʃe ʃeʃ      holo          jud̪d̪ʰo, kʰuʃite               mat̪owaɾa        hoeʧʰe        ɡazaɾ 

finally,  end be-PST.3 war      happiness-INS intoxicated      be-PFV.3   Gaza-GEN 

ʃiʃura⁵

children.PL

(3) “Finally with the end of the war, the children of Gaza are overjoyed.”

This usage demonstrates how ‘happiness’ can be framed as affective intoxication that overtakes groups and spreads socially — mapping emotional states onto collective bodily experience.

kʰuʃi                    ki                  kʰumari                        meː                  hona      (Hindi)

happiness         GEN                intoxicated-state           LOC                be-INF

(4) “To be intoxicated with joy” / “To be in a blissful daze”

This metaphor appears in both Bangla and Hindi, where intense joy is likened to the effects of intoxication—euphoria, light-headedness, and detachment from reality.

iv. HAPPINESS IS CONTAINER (being in happiness)

 ‘Happiness’ is conceptualized as a bounded space in which individuals can “stay” or “be,” reflecting the emotions are containers metaphor. Here ‘happiness’ is an immersive yet temporary state that can be entered or experienced. In Hindu traditions, this metaphor frames ‘happiness’ as a mental or existential space attained through contentment, moral living, and spiritual practice.

kʰuʃi/sukʰ         meː      hona                                                               (Hindi)

happiness         LOC     be-INF

(5) “To be in happiness”

v. HAPPINESS IS DESIRED OBJECT

kʰuʃi                   ki       t̪əlaʃ                 meː      rehna                                       (Hindi)

happiness         GEN    search              LOC     stay-INF          

(6) “To be in pursuit of happiness”

‘Happiness’ is metaphorically framed as a valuable and sought-after entity. The Hindi example presents ‘happiness’ as an object of pursuit. This metaphor aligns with a broader cognitive understanding of goals as objects, where desirable emotional states like happiness are treated as tangible things that can be gained, lost, or longed for.

vi. HAPPINESS IS MUSIC

Hindi metaphorically link ‘happiness’ to music, symbolizing harmony, rhythm, and celebration. Embedded in cultural traditions like classical music, bhajans, Bollywood music, etc. this metaphor reflects joy as an instinctive, communal, and uplifting experience. A well-known cultural example appears in a classic Hindi film song:

d͡ʒʰuːm      d͡ʒʰuːm    ke            nat͡ʃo              aːd͡ʒ         gaːo                  (Hindi)

sway        sway       INST dance-IMP.2PL   today        sing-IMP.2PL 

kʰuʃiː        ke          giːt̪       ho⁶

happiness GEN        song  EMPH

(7) “Sway, sway and dance today, sing the songs of happiness!”

This cinematic usage reinforces the metaphor happiness is music/song, presenting ‘happiness’ as a performative and embodied emotion that takes audible and social form.

vii. HAPPINESS IS TEMPERATURE

kʰʊʃi                kiː                    ɡərmaːɦʌʈ                                (poetic use in Hindi)

happiness         POSS               warmth

(8) “Warmth of happiness”

The association between warmth and positive feelings is deeply rooted in the language and culture. This conceptual metaphor aligns with universal human experiences where warmth is equated with comfort and positivity. The metaphor Happiness is Warmth is universal (Lakoff & Johnson 1980) but takes specific cultural forms in Hindi. In Western languages, warmth is also used metaphorically (e.g., “a warm personality”), for instance, Díaz-Vera’s (2024) study examines the culturally specific use of the happiness is temperature metaphor for positive emotions in Old English texts, challenging universal embodiment theories.

viii. HAPPINESS IS UNRESTRAINED DANCING

Consistent with embodied cognition, this metaphor expresses ‘happiness’ through bodily movements such as dancing or swaying. These actions reflect the sensorimotor experience of intense joy and metonymically represent emotion through physical expression. The metaphor also emphasizes the communal nature of ‘joy’ in celebratory and devotional contexts. For example, a popular bhajan performance reports:

saːraː paɳɖaːl kʰuʃiː          se      d͡ʒʰuːm uʈʰaː⁷                                        (Hindi)
whole pandal happiness INST sway rise-PFV.3SG

(9) “The entire pandal swayed with happiness.”

Here, collective swaying stands as a visible embodiment of shared emotional uplift, reinforcing happiness is elevation and dance as intertwined metaphorical structures.

iх. HAPPINESS IS BLOSSOMING FLOWER

A recent Hindi news headline demonstrates this metaphor in natural discourse:

məmmiː-paːpaː kaː        kʰuʃiː        se      kʰil         gajaː                t͡ʃəhraː⁸  (Hindi)

mother-father    GEN   happiness INST bloom    go-PST.M.SG face

(10) “The parents’ faces lit up with joy.”

Here, kʰil gajaː t͡ʃəhraː encodes ‘happiness’ as somatic blossoming, reinforcing the metaphor happiness is flowering, where inner joy becomes externally radiant and aesthetically visible. In both Hindi and Bangla traditions, ‘happiness’ is culturally grounded in floral imagery as blossoming vitality and sacred renewal; in Bangla Śyāma Sangeet dedicated to Goddess Kali, the line “maa er paaye joba hoye uthlo fute mon” (/maːeɾ paːe dʒɔba hɔe uʈʰlo pʰuʈe mon/) depicts the heart blooming like a hibiscus—Kali’s sacred flower—at the Mother’s feet, reflecting the Śākta tradition (Śaktism), a devotional stream of Hinduism that worships the Divine Mother (Śakti) as ultimate reality, while in Hindi, expressions such as t͡ʃəhra kʰil uʈʰna (“the face blossomed”) similarly encode ‘joy’ as visible floral flourishing embedded in festival aesthetics, nature symbolism, and devotional culture.

х. HAPPINESS IS LIGHT (roʃnai, radiance)

uske                t͡ʃəhre   pər         ek       t͡ʃəmək             kʰuʃiː ki            t̪ʰi         (Hindi)

3SG.GEN         face      LOC      one     shine               happiness-GEN exist.PST.3SG 

(11) “There was a glow on his/her face.” In Hindi, ‘happiness’ is linked to a glowing face, reflecting its transformative effect.

This aligns with emotions cause physiological changes, where ‘happiness’ manifests as a glow.

o HAPPINESS IS SPARK

(Specific level metaphor of the generic level metaphor – happiness is light)

This metaphor is actively used in Hindi pedagogy and everyday communication. For instance, a language-learning prompt explains:

‘ãkʰõ meː t͡ʃəmək aːnaː’ kaː ərt̪ʰ hɛ kisiː baːt̪ kiː kʰuʃiː hoːnaː⁹

(12) “A sparkle in the eyes’ means to feel happiness about something.”

The instructional context reinforces that this visual effect is widely recognized as a signifier of ‘happiness’ in cultural cognition and linguistic usage.

хi. HAPPINESS IS A SOCIAL SUPERIOR

sukʰ                   ka                   gulam               hona                                        (Hindi)

happiness         GEN                slave/servant    to be-INF

(13) “To be a slave to happiness.”

‘Happiness’, in Hindi, is conceptualized as a powerful social superior, portraying individuals as submissive or dependent on it. The phrase “slave to happiness” suggests that joy can dominate actions and decisions, reinforcing its authority in shaping behaviour.

It resonates with Indian philosophical traditions, especially Bhakti¹⁰ and Vedanta¹¹, where material ‘happiness’ (sukha)¹² is seen as an illusion (maya)¹³ that can enslave the mind through attachment (moha)¹⁴. True liberation (moksha)¹⁵ is believed to come from detachment (vairagya)¹⁶ and spiritual fulfilment over fleeting pleasures.

хii. HAPPINESS IS JOURNEY

                                                                                                      (poetic use in Hindi)

kʰuʃi                 koi       mənzil              nəhi      bəlki     ek        səfər                 he

happiness         any      destination       NEG    rather   one      journey is.COP

(14) “Happiness is not a destination but a journey.”

‘Happiness’ is conceptualized as a continuous journey rather than a fixed destination, reflecting Indian spiritual and poetic traditions that emphasize experiential growth, impermanence, balance, and mindful engagement over final attainment. Vedantic thought, the Bhagavad Gita¹⁷, Sufi¹⁸, and Bhakti poetry all reinforce the idea that joy unfolds through experiences, inner discovery, and detachment from fixed outcomes.

A recent Hindi article reinforces this metaphor explicitly:

kʰuʃiː              jaːt̪ɾaː            hɛ,       mənzɪl           nəɦĩ¹⁹                             (Hindi)
happiness      journey be.PRS.3SG   destination  NEG

(15) “Happiness is a journey, not a destination.”

The accompanying sub-headline elaborates that what makes a person happy depends on their nature, mindset, desires, and circumstances, highlighting variability and experiential growth.

This reinforces the metaphoric mapping of ‘happiness’ as ongoing progress rather than a final acquired state.

хiii. HAPPINESS IS FLIGHT

kʰuʃi                   ke                   mare                asmaːn me:       uɽna                (Hindi)

happiness         GEN                due to              sky-LOC          fly-INF

(16) “To fly in the sky out of happiness”

‘Happiness’ is metaphorically depicted as flight, symbolizing freedom, lightness, and exhilaration. Located in Hindi, this imagery reflects the psychological effect of ‘joy’, creating a sense of weightlessness and boundless energy, as if soaring above earthly concerns.

хiv. HAPPINESS IS A LAMP

kʰuʃi                  ke                   diːp      d͡ʒəlana                                                (Hindi)

happiness         GEN                lamp    light-INF

(17) “To light the lamp of happiness.”

This Hindi metaphor symbolizes brightness, warmth, and positivity, reinforcing the idea that ‘joy’ can be spread like light. In Indian traditions, lighting lamps (diyas) during festivals like Diwali represents hope and the victory of light over darkness. Rooted in Hinduism, this metaphor aligns with the Ramayana[20], where Ayodhya’s²¹ people lit lamps to celebrate Lord Ram’s²² return from exile, marking the triumph of Dharma²³ over evil. This act, commemorated as Diwali, signifies ‘happiness’ dispelling sorrow, emphasizing that ‘joy’, like a lamp, can be actively nurtured to illuminate lives.

A Diwali song reinforces this conceptualization:        

                                                                                                                      (Hindi)

kʰuʃijõ              ke       diːp            d͡ʒəlaːo,         əʋəd̪ʰ  mẽ       raːm 

happiness.PL GEN lamp.PL light-IMP.2PL Ayodhya  LOC     Ram 

aːje                           hɛ̃²⁴

come.PFV.M.PL        AUX

(18) “Light the lamps of happiness — Ram has arrived in Ayodhya.”

The metaphor here blends religious narrative and emotional symbolism: ‘happiness’ becomes radiance, a ritual act, and a shared celebration of divine joy.

хv. HAPPINESS IS A PERIOD OF TIME

kʰuʃi                  ke       d̪ɔːr                                                      (poetic use in Hindi)

happiness         GEN    period/time

(19) “A period of happiness”

The metaphorical expression presents ‘happiness’ as temporary and cyclical, akin to life’s changing phases. Rooted in Hindu philosophy, it aligns with Anitya²⁵ (impermanence) in Advaita Vedanta²⁶ and Samkhya²⁷, emphasizing Samsara’s²⁸ transient nature, where ‘joy’ and ‘sorrow’ ebb and flow like seasons or yugas²⁹ (epochs). The Bhagavad Gita (2.14) reinforces this idea, stating that pleasure and pain, like heat and cold, are fleeting. Similarly, Ritu Chakra³⁰ (seasonal cycles) symbolizes emotional impermanence.

The phrase kʰuʃi ke d̪ɔːr (“a phase of happiness”) echoes Hindu teachings on vairagya (detachment), advocating equanimity in both joy and sorrow.

4.2. anond̪o / anand̪ (joy)

Expressions containing anond̪o or anand̪ highlight several metaphorical patterns related to emotional intensity, immersion, and collective experience.

i. HAPPINESS IS FLOOD

A recent Bangla news post describing the emotional scene in Gaza used the phrase:

mukt̪ir           anond̪e              gazar           ʃiʃud̪er                bad̪ʰ³¹          (Bangla)

freedom-GEN happiness-LOC Gaza-GEN children-PL.GEN dam 

bʰaŋa                      ullas

break-PFV.PTCP exultation

(20) “The children of Gaza burst into a flood of ‘joy’ at their freedom.”

This real-world usage from a Bangla media post illustrates the metaphor happiness is flood, where ‘joy’ is described as a dam-breaking force (bad̪ bʰaŋa ullas), expressing an uncontrollable surge of collective ‘happiness’. The phrase aligns with traditional idiomatic expressions such as anond̪er bad̪ʰ bʰaŋa (“the floodgates of happiness broke open”), emphasizing the embodied and unrestrained nature of intense ‘joy’ in Bangla cultural cognition. In Bengal, rivers such as the Ganges, Padma, Hooghly, Mahananda, and Teesta symbolize both destruction and fertility, as floods devastate yet enrich the soil.

ii. HAPPINESS IS LIGHT (roʃnai, radiance)

bohu sɔŋskr̩tir       melbandʰon, bibidʱ    anond̪er             roʃnai³²          (Bangla)
many culture-GEN  union          various happiness-GEN light/illumination

(21) “In the union of many cultures, the myriad lights of happiness.”

The phrase appeared in a feature article from The Daily Star (Bangla, Nov 28 2022) which describes Qatar’s vibrant display of cultural diversity during the 2022 FIFA World Cup.

The phrase bibidʱo anond̪er roʃnai (“the myriad lights of happiness”) evokes collective ‘joy’ through imagery of illumination, extending the metaphor happiness is light. In Bangla, roʃnai (light, splendour) evokes Durga Puja³³, linking ‘joy’ with celebration and warmth. With the broader cultural contrast of day as happiness and night as sadness, reinforcing light as a symbol of positivity, energy, and celebration across both languages – Hindi and Bangla.

o HAPPINESS IS SPARK

(Specific level metaphor of the generic level metaphor – happiness is light)

t͡ʃokʰe              anond̪er                        d͡ʒʰilik                                                  (Bangla)

eyes-LOC         happiness-GEN             spark               

(22) “A sparkle of joy in the eyes”

Using imagery of a sudden flash of light, this metaphor represents the visible and immediate expression of ‘joy’. The eyes become a key site where emotions manifest physically, with a sparkle conveying excitement and liveliness. It aligns with the generic metaphor emotions cause physiological changes, where ‘happiness’ produces facial brightness and animated expressions. Like a spark, it also highlights the fleeting yet intense nature of ‘joy’.

iii. HAPPINESS IS ELEVATION/UP

ʃe                       anond̪e                        akaʃ      t͡ʃʰulo                                       (Bangla)

3SG.NOM        happiness-LOC             sky       touch-PST.INDF.3SG  

(23) “He/she soared with happiness”

Aligning with the broader conceptual metaphor good is up, this expression conceptualizes ‘joy’ as upward movement, symbolizing emotional upliftment. It reflects embodied experiences of feeling lighter when happy and cultural imagery of the sky as boundless ‘joy’. In Hindi, “sat̪we asmaːn pər hona” (“to be in seventh heaven”) also draws on religious traditions that associate higher realms with divine bliss.

A Hindi media example reinforces similar conceptualization in everyday discourse:

arhaːn       kʰaːn sat̪we   asmaːn pər    hɛ³⁴                                              (Hindi)
Arhaan    Khan seventh sky      LOC be.PRS.3SG

(24) “Arhaan Khan is over the moon with happiness.”

Although the expression does not contain the specific lexical items analysed in this study, it is included because it represents a highly salient cultural expression of intense ‘joy’.

o HAPPINESS IS BEING LIFTED OFF THE GROUND

(Specific level metaphor of the generic level metaphor – happiness is elevation/up)

anond̪e                t̪aɾ             pa   maʈit̪e             poɾcʰe                          na        (Bangla)

happiness-LOC 3SG.GEN   feet   ground-LOC   fall-PRS.CONT.3SG     NEG   

(25) “He/she is walking on air”

Derived from the happiness is elevation/up, the metaphor conceptualizes extreme ‘joy’ as physical lightness and detachment from the earth. It reflects embodied experience where upward movement signals positive emotion, while heaviness and groundedness indicate sadness or burden.

iv. HAPPINESS IS UNRESTRAINED EXPRESSION

ʃe                     anond̪e                  nece             uʈʰlo                           (Bangla)

3SG.NOM        happiness-LOC     dance-CVB   rise-PST.INDF.3SG

(26) “She rose up dancing with happiness”

Aligned with embodied cognition, this metaphor expresses ‘happiness’ through bodily movements such as dancing or swaying. These actions reflect the sensorimotor experience of intense ‘joy’ and metonymically represent emotion through physical expression, while also highlighting its communal dimension in celebratory dance and rhythmic movement.

v. HAPPINESS IS A FLUID

anond̪o-mɔgno              haoa                                                                (Bangla)

happiness-immersed     be-INF

(27) “To be absorbed or immersed in happiness”

anand̪-məgan                hona                                                                (Hindi)

happiness-immersed     be-INF

(28) “To be absorbed or immersed in happiness”

In both Bangla and Hindi, ‘happiness’ is conceptualized as an immersive experience, like being submerged in liquid. The imagery of being drenched or enveloped highlights deep emotional engagement where surroundings fade. This reflects a broader cognitive mapping in which emotions function as tangible substances that can fill or overwhelm the experiencer.     

vi. HAPPINESS IS SPRING SEASON

(Specific level metaphor of the generic level metaphor – happiness is season)

faguner             nobin    anond̪e³⁵                                              (Bangla) (Tagore’s song)

spring-GEN      new      happiness-LOC

(29) “In the new happiness of the onset of spring”

This is the opening line from a Rabindra Sangeet of the same name. This song by Rabindranath Tagore belongs to the Prakriti (Nature) Parjaay (No. 245) and the Basanta (Spring) Upa-Parjaay (No. 58). Celebrating spring as a season of renewal and ‘joy’, the song linguistically and musically embodies the conceptual metaphor happiness is spring, where emotional blossoming parallels nature’s rebirth.

t̪um                   mere    d͡ʒivən  ki        bəsənt ho                           (poetic use in Hindi)

2SG.NOM          my     life       GEN    spring   be-PRS.2SG.INF         

(30) “You are the spring of my life”

This specific-level mapping under happiness is a season,  links ‘happiness’ with spring in both Bangla and Hindi, symbolizing renewal and vitality. Although the expression does not contain the lexical items examined in this study, it is included because it reflects a culturally salient metaphor of joyful transformation that helps illustrate broader conceptual patterns.

In Bengal, Fagun³⁶ ushers in Dol Utsav³⁷ (Basanta Utsav), inspired by Rabindranath Tagore, marked by music, colours, and poetic expressions of love and freedom. In Hindi-speaking regions, Holi³⁸, the festival of colours, signifies exuberant ‘happiness’, unity, and renewal. Both festivals emphasize uninhibited emotional expression, reinforcing the metaphor of ‘happiness’ as a seasonal bloom—fleeting yet intense, cyclical yet eagerly anticipated.

vii. HAPPINESS IS MUSIC

Composed spontaneously during a train journey, the below mentioned line transforms ‘happiness’ into song, directly embodying the metaphor happiness is music. Here, anond̪o gan uʈʰuk bad͡ʒi portrays ‘joy’ as an audible, rhythmic outpouring of emotion—where inner elation becomes a communal melody. Tagore’s poetic imagination fuses sound, movement, and devotion, turning ‘happiness’ into an expressive performance of the soul.

anond̪o          gan    uʈʰuk        bad͡ʒi³⁹  (Tagore’s song – Rabindrasangeet)
happiness      song rise.SBJV play-PFV

(31) “Let the song of happiness arise, let the music resound.”

Source: Rabindranath Tagore, Puja-Parjaay: Ānondo (Song No. 309), written on 12 January 1915, composed on a train from Bolpur to Kolkata. Published in Balaka; Swarabitan Vol. 56. In Bangla culture, ‘happiness’ is metaphorically expressed through music symbolizing harmony, rhythm, celebration, and a deeply communal, uplifting experience of ‘joy’.

viii. HAPPINESS IS TANGIBLE OBJECT

(Bangla)

ʃe                t̪aɾ              anond̪oke           dʰoɾe          ɾakʰt̪e        paɾlo                        na

3SG.NOM  3SG.GEN  happiness-ACC   hold-CVB  keep-INF   be.able-PST.3SG   NEG

(32) “He/she couldn’t hold on to his/her joy.”

In Bangla, ‘happiness’ is seen as a tangible entity that can be held or lost, highlighting its fragility and the effort needed to sustain it. Culturally, Bengali literature, music, and folk traditions depict happiness as fleeting, needing careful preservation. In modern discourse, it aligns with self-help narratives, highlighting ‘happiness’ as something that requires active effort.

ix. HAPPINESS IS DISORIENTATION

anond̪e             d̪iʃahara                                                                       (Bangla)

joy-LOC          directionless

(33) “Lost in joy”

‘Happiness’ is depicted as a disruptive force causing disorientation (d̪iʃahara), highlighting how overwhelming ‘joy’ can momentarily distract from focus, routine, or practical concerns.

x. HAPPINESS IS MAGIC SPELL / ENCHANTMENT

anond̪e                         bibʰor                           hɔoa                             (Bangla)

happiness-LOC             enchanted/bewitched    become-INF

(34) “Enchanted/ bewitched in happiness”

‘Happiness’ is depicted as a magical spell, creating a trance-like, euphoric state that alters perception and overwhelms the mind. Intense ‘joy’ is portrayed as a captivating force that transforms reality, aligning with South Asian literary traditions where ‘happiness’, love, and beauty are described as magical and dreamlike. This metaphor remains productive in contemporary public discourse. For example, during Durga Puja celebrations, a recent Bangla news report stated:

puɽo     baŋladeʃ      puʤar           anond̪e                bibʰor⁴⁰                               (Bangla)
whole  Bangladesh puja-GEN       happiness-LOC   entranced/absorbed

(35) “The whole Bangladesh is immersed in the happiness of puja (here, Durga Puja).”

Here, bibʰor encodes a spellbound emotional state, extending the metaphor into collective experience: ‘happiness’ acts like an affective enchantment enveloping an entire community during a cultural festival. The grammatical construction further frames ‘happiness’ as a surrounding environment or condition in which people become absorbed.

xi. HAPPINESS IS LOSS OF SELF-AWARENESS

‘Happiness’ is seen as an overwhelming state (at̪t̪ohara) that immerses individuals, temporarily erasing self-awareness and external consciousness. Intense ‘happiness’ leads to emotional transcendence, overwhelming rational thought and creating complete present-moment absorption. A recent Bangla news headline illustrates this metaphor:

                                                                                                                     (Bangla)

ʃunei         baɽi     fiɾt͡ʃʰilo                anond̪e                   at̪t̪ohara          d͡ʒugal⁴¹

hear-CVB    home  return-PROG.3  happiness-LOC       self-forgetful couple

(36) “Hearing it, the couple was returning home, self-forgetful in joy.”

Here, ‘joy’ is construed as a force that possesses the experiencer, resulting in temporary loss of rational control, highlighting the embodied experience of extreme emotional states.

4.3. ʃukʰ / sukʰ (happiness, well-being)

The lexeme ʃukʰ/sukʰ, which often conveys meanings related to well-being and contentment, appears in expressions that conceptualize emotional states through natural, spatial, and cyclical imagery.

i. HAPPINESS IS OCEAN

ʃukʰ                  ʃagor                                                                                       (Bangla)

happiness         ocean

(37) “An ocean of happiness”

The metaphor an ocean of happiness found both in Hindi and Bangla depicts ‘happiness’ as vast and overwhelming, aligning with the emotions are substances concept, where the ocean symbolizes its depth and intensity. In both cultures, water bodies symbolize emotional richness and spiritual fulfilment. In Bengal, the Ganges, Padma, Hooghly, and other rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal represent life, prosperity, and sanctity, while in Hindi-speaking regions, the Ganga and Yamuna are linked to purity, renewal, and devotion.

A contemporary devotional usage further reinforces this metaphor:

ʃukʰ               saːgər ke     kinaːre     meːraː      gaːũ⁴²                                 (Hindi)

happiness      ocean GEN  shore       my           village

(38) My village is on the shores of the ocean of happiness.

Here, ‘happiness’ as an ocean extends into a metaphoric landscape, situating life and community in close proximity to abundant ‘joy’. The spatial construction (“shore of happiness”) reinforces the idea that happiness is a life-giving environment that one can inhabit or approach, reflecting a spiritualized emotional geography within Hindi discourse.

ii. HAPPINESS IS A CONTAINER

ʃukʰ-e                           t̪ʰaka                                                                           (Bangla)

happiness-LOC             stay-INF

(39) “To be in happiness”

sukʰ                  meː      hona                                                                           (Hindi)

happiness         LOC     be-INF

(40) “To be in happiness”

Here, ‘happiness’ is conceptualized as a bounded space where individuals can “stay” or “be,” like a physical container holding an object. This aligns with the broader emotions are containers metaphor, suggesting that ‘happiness’ can be entered, exited, or fully experienced, reinforcing its temporary nature. Culturally rooted in Hindu traditions, the metaphor depicts ‘happiness’ as an immersive state – a mental or existential space one can inhabit through contentment, moral living, and spiritual practice.

iii. HAPPINESS IS FLUID IN A CONTAINER

(Specific level metaphor of the generic level metaphor – happiness is fluid)

ʃukʰ                 upt͡ʃe                pɔra                                                                 (Bangla)

happiness         overflow-CP     fall-INF           

(41) “Happiness spilling over”

In Bangla, happiness is fluid is realized through the metaphor of the body/mind as a container where intense ‘joy’, like liquid, overflows its limits and manifests physically, emphasizing that strong emotions demand outward expression.

iv. HAPPINESS IS A SEASON

ʃukʰ-er              morʃum                                                                                   (Bangla)

happiness-GEN season

(42) “Season of happiness”

sukʰ                 ke        mɔsəm                                                                        (Hindi)

happiness         GEN    season

(43) “Season of happiness”

Bangla and Hindi both reflect a cultural perception of ‘joy’ as a natural, cyclical phenomenon, emphasizing its transient yet recurring nature. In South Asian cultures, where seasonal changes dictate agricultural prosperity and festivals, this metaphor resonates with the belief that ‘joy’, like nature’s cycles, is fleeting yet inevitable, bringing warmth and vitality before giving way to other emotional states.

v. HAPPINESS IS DAY

ʃukʰ-er                         din,      dukʰer              rat̪I                                          (Bangla)

happiness-GEN            day       sorrow-GEN     night

(44) “Day of happiness and night of sorrow”                   

sukʰ                 ke        d̪in,      gəm        ki       raːt̪                                          (Hindi)

happiness         GEN    day       sorrow-GEN     night

(45) “Day of happiness and night of sorrow”

This analysis posits that the conceptualization of ‘happiness’ as light and ‘sorrow’ as darkness, observed within the data, aligns with a universal cognitive dichotomy rooted in diurnal cycles. This association is further substantiated by the symbolic use of illumination in festival and celebratory contexts, which serve to reinforce the metaphorical link between light and positive affect.

vi. HAPPINESS IS BREEZE

ʃukʰ-er                 haowa           laga                                                                 (Bangla)

happiness-GEN    breeze           touch-INF

(46) “To be touched by the breeze of happiness”

In Bangla, ‘happiness’ is likened to a cool breeze—light, refreshing, and transient—providing emotional comfort. Rooted in embodied experience and nature, this metaphor emphasizes ‘joy’s’ fleeting yet deeply felt presence, symbolizing movement and renewal.

vii. HAPPINESS IS TIDE

In Bangla, ‘happiness’ is likened to ocean tides—rising, overwhelming, and cyclical—emphasizing its fluctuating nature. Rooted in Bengali geography and culture, this metaphor reflects ‘joy’ as a powerful, ever-changing force shaped by natural rhythms. Water imagery is prevalent in Bangla expressions, reinforcing the idea that emotions, like tides, ebb and flow naturally.

This following media headline metaphorically portrays happiness as a rising tide (dʒoa̯r), suggesting overwhelming surge of collective joy associated with the festival of Diwali⁴³.

d̪ipaboli-te     sukʰ-er                        dʒoa̯r⁴⁴                                           (Bangla)
Diwali-LOC  happiness-GEN         tide/flood

(47) “During Diwali, a tide of happiness rises.”

viii. HAPPINESS IS WAVE

ʃukʰer                           ɖʰeu                                                                            (Bangla)

happiness-GEN             wave

(48) “A wave of happiness”

This Bangla metaphor depicts joy as a powerful, fluid force—rising, spreading, and engulfing like ocean waves. Rooted in Bengali ecology and culture, it highlights ‘happiness’ as dynamic, unpredictable, yet rhythmic, mirroring the ever-changing nature of emotions.

ix. HAPPINESS IS VALUABLE COMMODITY

ʃukʰer                           d̪aːm/ muljo                                                                 (Bangla)

happiness-GEN             price/value

(49) “The price/value of happiness”

In Bangla, ‘happiness’ is viewed as a valuable commodity—earned, exchanged, or lost—rooted in economic cognition. Bengali culture contrasts ‘happiness’ with material wealth, depicting it as elusive yet invaluable. Traditional views tie joy to morality, while modern discourse connects it to consumerism and social status.

x. HAPPINESS IS VULNERABILITY

ʃukʰe                            t̪ʰakle               bʰuʈe                kilae                            (Bangla)

happiness-LOC             stay-COND      ghost-ERG       punch-PRS.3SG          

(50) “If you’re too happy, the ghost will strike”

The Bangla proverb reflects the vulnerability of ‘happiness’, always at risk of disruption. Rooted in South Asian beliefs in fate (bhagya) ⁴⁵, karma⁴⁶, and the evil eye (najar)⁴⁷, it suggests that excessive ‘joy’ may attract misfortune or jealousy. The bʰuʈe (ghost) symbolizes an invisible threat, reinforcing the idea that happiness is precarious.

Psychologically, this aligns with defensive pessimism, where people avoid full immersion in ‘joy’ to guard against disappointment. Bengali culture, through proverbs, folklore, and social attitudes, emphasizes emotional balance—warning against complacency in ‘happiness’. Common in everyday speech and literature, this metaphor highlights that ‘joy’ is fragile, shaped by life’s uncertainties.

4.4. haʃi / həsi (laughter, smile)

Expressions containing haʃi/həsi illustrate how visible bodily expressions such as smiling and laughter function as metonymic and metaphorical indicators of emotional states.

i. HAPPINESS IS BLOSSOMING FLOWER

mukʰe              haʃi      pʰoʈa                                                                           (Bangla)

face-LOC         smile    bloom-PFV.INF

(51) “A smile blossomed on the face”

This metaphor reflects a cultural understanding of ‘happiness’ in Bangla as a blooming flower—symbolizing grace, vitality, and natural flourishing—whose deep association with festivals, ‘joy’, and renewal reinforces the connection between nature’s beauty and human emotions.

4.5. Miscelleneous

i. HAPPINESS IS SWEETNESS

                                                                                                                       (Hindi) 

t̪umhari  bat̪one           mere         kanome:    miʃri                gʰol                d̪i              ho

your        words-ERG  as-if  my  ear-LOC    sugar-crystals  dissolve-INF  give-PFV  AUX

(52) “Your words felt like they filled my ears with sweetness” (Pleasant words inducing happiness)

This metaphor equates ‘joy’ with the pleasant taste of sugar, suggesting that kind words bring comfort and emotional upliftment, like dissolving miʃri (sugar) in one’s ears. Rooted in the universal link between sweetness and pleasure, it reflects how positive speech or good news induces ‘happiness’, just as sweet flavours create delight. In Hindi and South Asian cultures, sweetness symbolizes positivity, affection, and well-being. Traditions like miʈʰai baːʈna (distributing sweets) during celebrations reinforce the deep metaphorical connection between sweetness and ‘happiness’ in both language and cultural practice.

Celebratory customs such as distributing sweets reinforce the same conceptual linkage. The Hindi cultural practice miʈʰaːi baːʈnaː (“sharing sweets”) symbolizes the sharing of ‘happiness’.

A recent Diwali news headline highlights this association:

                                                                                                                  (Hindi)

d̪ivaːliː pər   miʈʰaːi baːnʈne         kaː      kjaː  hɛ                 məhət̪ʋ⁴⁸

Diwali LOC sweet  share-GER       GEN   what be.PRS.3SG     importance

(53) “What is the importance of distributing sweets during Diwali?”

This reinforces the metaphor happiness is sweetness, where ‘happiness’ is tasted, shared, and celebrated through culturally meaningful acts.

ii. HAPPINESS IS A STATE OF MIND

ʃe        kʰub     bʰalo     mejaje          acʰe                                                            (Bangla)

she     very     good     mood-LOC   be-PRS.3SG

(54) “She is in a very good mood”

‘Happiness’ is seen as an internal, subjective state in Bengali culture, with ‘bʰalo mejaj’ (good mood) highlighting its transient and perception-based nature. This metaphor reflects psychological and South Asian philosophical views of ‘happiness’ as a mental state shaped by thoughts, emotions, and inner peace. Although it does not contain the searched lexical items, it is included due to its cultural and conceptual relevance.

Our findings are summarized in two tables below. Table 1 presents the conceptual metaphors of happiness shared by Hindi and Bangla. It lists representative expressions from both languages that illustrate common embodied schemas such as fluidity, light, elevation, containment, seasonality, and music, showing cross-linguistic similarities in the metaphorical conceptualization of happiness.

Table 1. Common Conceptual Mappings of Happiness in Hindi and Bangla 

	Conceptual Metaphors	Hindi	Bangla
1	happiness is ocean	sukʰ ka sagər “An ocean of happiness”	ʃukʰ ʃagor “An ocean of happiness”
2	happiness is flood	kʰuʃi me: bəh dʒana “To be flooded by happiness”	anond̪er bãd̪ʰ bʰaŋa “The floodgates of happiness broke open”
3	happiness is blossoming flower	t͡ʃəhra kʰil sa gəja “The face blossomed like a flower”	mukʰe haʃi pʰoʈa     “A smile blossomed on the face”
4	happiness is light	uske t͡ʃəhre pər ek t͡ʃəmək t̪ʰi “There was a glow on his/her face.”	anond̪er  roʃnai        “ The light of happiness”
5	happiness is spark	ãkʰo me: chəmak a d͡ʒana “The eyes lit up (sparkled)”	t͡ʃokʰe anond̪er d͡ʒʰilik “A sparkle of joy in the eyes”
6	happiness is elevation/up	sat̪we asmaːn pər   hona “To be in seventh heaven”	ʃe anond̪e akaʃ t͡ʃʰulo “He/she soared with happiness”
7	happiness is being lifted off the ground	pao ʒəmĩ pər na hona              “(He/she is) walking on air”	t̪aɾ pa maʈit̪e poɾcʰe na “(He/she is) walking on air”
8	happiness is unrestrained dancing	kʰuʃi se d͡ʒʰuːm uʈʰna “To sway in happiness”	ʃe anond̪e nece uʈʰlo “She danced in happiness”
9	happiness is container	kʰuʃi/sukʰ meː hona “To be happy”	ʃukʰe t̪ʰaka “To be happy”
10	happiness is fluid	anand̪-məgan hona “To be absorbed or immersed in happiness”	anond̪o-mɔgno haoa “To be absorbed or immersed in happiness”
11	happiness is fluid in a container	kʰuʃi t͡ʃʰələkna “Happiness spilling over”	ʃukʰ upt͡ʃe pɔra “Happiness spilling over”
12	happiness is desired object	kʰuʃi ki t̪əlaʃ meː rehna “To be in pursuit of happiness”	akaʃer t͡ʃãd hat̪ʰe paoa “To touch the moon in the sky”
13	happiness is intoxication	kʰuʃi ki kʰuməri             meː hona “To be intoxicated with joy”	anond̪e mat̪owara hɔoa “To be intoxicated with joy”
14	happiness is a season	sukʰ ke mɔsəm “Season of happiness”	ʃukʰer morʃum “Season of happiness”
15	happiness is spring season	t̪um mere d͡ʒivən ki       bəsənt ho “You are the spring of my life”	faguner nobin anond̪e “In the new happiness of the onset of spring”
16	happiness is music	sukʰ / kʰuʃiː ke giːt̪ gana  “Sing the song of happiness”	anond̪o    gan uʈʰuk bad͡ʒi  “Let the song of happiness be played”
17	happiness is day	sukʰ ke d̪in, gəm ki raːt̪ “Day of happiness and night of sorrow”	ʃukʰer din, dukʰer rat̪I  “Day of happiness and night of sorrow”
18	happiness is temperature	kʰʊʃi kiː ɡərmaːɦʌʈ “Day of happiness and night of sorrow”	uʃno onubʱut̪I “Warm feelings”

Table 2 highlights language-specific differences. Hindi metaphors frequently draw on ritual symbolism (lamps), sensory experiences (sweetness), and philosophical reflections (journeys), often influenced by Vedantic and Bhakti traditions. In contrast, Bangla metaphors are deeply shaped by the region’s riverine ecology (tides, waves) and emphasize emotional immersion and vulnerability. Together, these tables show how a shared metaphorical foundation is uniquely elaborated through different cultural “ecologies of emotion”.

Table 2. Culture-specific Conceptual Mappings of Happiness in Hindi and Bangla 

Hindi	Bangla
happiness is sweetness	happiness is breeze
happiness is a social superior	happiness is tide
happiness is journey	happiness is wave
happiness is flight	happiness is valuable commodity
happiness is a lamp	happiness is tangible object
happiness is a period of time	happiness is a person
	happiness is vulnerability
	happiness is a state of mind
	happiness is disorientation
	happiness is loss of self-awareness
	happiness is a magic spell

5. Discussions on conceptual metaphors structuring happiness in Hindi and Bangla

The shared conceptual metaphorical mappings identified in the analysis reveal cultural and cognitive continuities between Hindi and Bangla, reflecting historical contact, linguistic proximity, and shared South Asian cultural traditions. Rather than treating the English term happiness as a universal category, this discussion focuses on metaphorical patterns associated with the Hindi and Bangla lexemes kʰuʃi, anond̪o/anand̪, and ʃukʰ/sukʰ. The term ‘happiness’ is therefore used only as a convenient analytical label, while the analysis centers on the semantic and metaphorical behaviour of these language-specific lexical items.

Expressions containing these lexemes frequently draw on embodied schemas such as fluidity, light, elevation, containment, and seasonal cycles. While these schemas correspond to widely observed patterns in conceptual metaphor research, their linguistic realizations are shaped by the semantic properties of the individual lexemes. Consequently, the patterns observed in Hindi and Bangla represent language-specific conceptualizations rather than universal metaphorical models of ‘happiness’.

5.1. Hindi-specific elaborations

In Hindi, metaphorical extensions associated with kʰuʃi and sukʰ frequently develop embodied schemas through ritual symbolism, sensory experience, and philosophical reflection.

5.1.1. HAPPINESS IS SWEETNESS

Sweetness metaphors conceptualize emotional states through gustatory experience. Cultural practices such as miʈʰai baːʈna (sharing sweets) during celebrations reinforce sweetness as a socially enacted symbol of joy and collective well-being.

5.1.2. HAPPINESS IS LAMP

Associations between kʰuʃi and light extend the broader illumination schema into ritual symbolism. Lighting diyas during Diwali represents renewal, hope, and the triumph of good over evil, linking emotional experience with religious practice.

5.1.3. HAPPINESS IS JOURNEY

The journey metaphor conceptualizes emotional well-being as an unfolding process rather than a fixed state. Expressions involving kʰuʃi frame emotional experience as developing through life events, reflecting philosophical traditions such as Vedanta, Bhakti, and Sufi thought.

5.1.4. HAPPINESS IS SOCIAL SUPERIOR

Some Hindi expressions portray emotional states as entities that dominate the experiencer, reflecting cultural perspectives that caution against attachment to transient pleasures and emphasize emotional restraint.

5.2. Bangla-specific elaborations

In Bangla, metaphorical extensions associated with anond̪o and ʃukʰ often develop shared embodied schemas through ecological imagery, aesthetic immersion, and emotional ambivalence.

5.2.1. HAPPINESS IS TIDE, WAVE, BREEZE

These metaphors extend the fluid schema through imagery rooted in Bengal’s riverine environment. Expressions involving ʃukʰ and anond̪o conceptualize emotional states through the movement of water, tides, and breezes, emphasizing rhythm and cyclical change.

5.2.2. HAPPINESS IS MAGIC SPELL, ENCHANTMENT, and LOSS OF SELF-AWARENESS

Some expressions portray emotional experience as immersive or transformative, temporarily suspending rational awareness. This reflects literary and devotional traditions that depict intense emotion through metaphors of aesthetic or spiritual absorption.

5.2.3. HAPPINESS IS VULNERABLE STATE

Certain Bangla proverbs depict positive emotional states as fragile and susceptible to disruption, reflecting cultural beliefs about fate and the instability of emotional fortune.

5.2.4. HAPPINESS IS VALUABLE COMMODITY

In some expressions, emotional well-being associated with ʃukʰ is conceptualized through economic schemas that frame it as something possessing value or worth.

Overall, while Hindi and Bangla share several embodied metaphorical schemas, they elaborate them differently. Hindi expressions involving kʰuʃi and sukʰ often emphasize ritual symbolism, sensory experience, and philosophical reflection, whereas Bangla expressions involving anond̪o and ʃukʰ foreground ecological imagery, aesthetic immersion, emotional fragility, and socio-economic valuation. These patterns demonstrate how shared embodied experiences are linguistically shaped by culturally specific lexical meanings.

6. Conclusion

While both languages share foundational embodied schemas (fluidity, light, elevation), Bangla elaborates ecological dynamism and emotional immersion, whereas Hindi extends ritual symbolism, gustatory embodiment, philosophical temporality, and hierarchical relational models. Bangla’s extensions emphasize natural rhythm, aesthetic absorption, emotional fragility and socio-economic valuation. Hindi’s extensions emphasize ritual celebration, sensory sweetness, moral-philosophical reflection and social relational structuring. These divergences illustrate how shared embodied cognition is culturally elaborated through ecology, ritual practice, literary tradition, and philosophical worldview.

By analyzing idiomatic and proverbial data, the study uncovers underlying cognitive models consistent with Kövecses’ view that language reflects conceptual reality. Importantly, it expands global metaphor research by introducing Bangla within a South Asian framework, highlighting both universal embodied patterns and culturally distinctive influences shaped by ecology, ritual, and philosophy.

 

 

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_{² URL: https://leverageedu.com/blog/}

_{³ URL: https://bengali.pratilipi.com/blog/bangler-prabaad-probochon2tf04u8h15gpa41}

_{⁴ Hindi. (2025, October 20). प्रधानमंत्री के संसदीय क्षेत्र वाराणसी में छलकीं खुशियां, चहुंओर दीपोत्सव, आतिशबाजी से बिखरी सतरंगी छटा. हिन्दुस्थान समाचार. URL: https://share.google/RGCAkjthR7lRqjnEc}

_{⁵  1.2K views · 30 reactions | অবশেষে শেষ হল যুদ্ধ, খুশিতে মাতোয়ারা. . . (n.d.). https://www.facebook}

_{⁶ Jhoom Jhoom Ke Nacho (HD) – Andaz Songs — Nargis — Dilip Kumar — Cuccoo — Raj Kapoor. (n.d.). [Video]. YouTube. URL: https://share.google/nMLcBDhA1RzmoqFFS}

_{⁷ सारा पंड़ाल खुशी से झूम उठा श्याम बाबा का ये भजन सुनकर | Raj Pareek Bhajan | Khatu Shyam Bhajan. (n.d.). YouTube. URL: https://share.google/bAlG1MoaMcjMiFrTv}

_{⁸ अन्नप्रशान में बच्चे ने खाने-खिलौने को छोड़कर चुना भागवत गीता… Jansatta Trending News (2024). Retrieved from https://www.jansatta.com/trending-news/baby-chooses-bhagavad-gita-at-annaprashan-everyone-shocked-viral-video/4194521/?utm_source=whatsapp&utm_medium=social&utm_
campaign=WhatsappShare}

_{⁹ Brainly.in (14 December 2022). ‘आँखों में चमक आना’ का अर्थ है किसी बात की खुशी होना। ऐसी कोई चार बातें लिखो जिनके कारण तुम्हारी आँखों में चमक आ जाती है। Retrieved from https://brainly.in/question/54592092}

_{¹⁰ Bhakti: A devotional tradition in Hinduism emphasizing emotional connection, love, and surrender to the divine as the path to spiritual fulfilment.}

_{¹¹ Vedanta: A philosophical school focusing on the realization of ultimate truth (Brahman) and the illusory nature of worldly experience.}

_{¹² Sukha: Material or worldly happiness; pleasure experienced through sensory and external sources.}

_{¹³ Maya: The illusionary nature of the material world that can mislead individuals into attachment and away from spiritual truth.}

_{¹⁴ Moha: Attachment or delusion that binds the mind to transient desires and worldly pleasures.}

_{¹⁵ Moksha: Liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth, achieved through spiritual realization and freedom from attachment.}

_{¹⁶ Vairagya: Detachment from material desires and emotional extremes, considered necessary for spiritual progress.}

_{¹⁷ Bhagavad Gita: A foundational Hindu scripture within the Mahabharata, presenting philosophical teachings on duty, devotion, and emotional equanimity.}

_{¹⁸ Sufi: Islamic mysticism focused on divine love and inner spiritual experience beyond worldly happiness.}

_{¹⁹ जनसत्त. (2022, September 9). खुशी यात्रा है, मंजिल नहीं. Jansatta. URL: https://www.jansatta.com/duniya-mere-aage/happiness-is-the-journey-not-the-destination/2368532/}

_{²⁰ Ramayana: A major Sanskrit epic narrating the life of Lord Ram and his victory over evil, central to Hindu devotional and cultural traditions.}

_{²¹ Ayodhya: The sacred birthplace and kingdom of Lord Ram, symbolizing righteousness, harmony, and divine joy in Hindu belief.}

_{²² Lord Ram (Rama): An avatar of Vishnu revered as the ideal king and embodiment of virtue, whose homecoming is celebrated as Diwali.}

_{²³ Dharma: The cosmic and moral order governing righteous conduct and duty, essential to Hindu ethical philosophy.}

_{²⁴ Trimurti Cassettes. (2020, November 13). 2020 दिवाली स्पेशल | खुशियों के दीप जलाओ अवध में राम आये है | Pawan Kumar | Trimurti [Video]. YouTube. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OgNR2hqd_dg}

_{²⁵ Anitya (Impermanence): A core Hindu philosophical concept denoting the transient nature of all worldly experiences, including joy and sorrow.}

_{²⁶ Advaita Vedanta: A non-dual Hindu philosophy asserting the unity of Atman (self) and Brahman (ultimate reality), emphasizing liberation through detachment from the transient world.}

_{²⁷ Samkhya: A dualistic system distinguishing Purusha (consciousness) from Prakriti (material nature), viewing joy and suffering as arising from entanglement within the material realm.}

_{²⁸ Samsara: The ongoing cycle of birth, death, and rebirth in South Asian traditions, marked by shifting experiences of joy and suffering, highlighting life’s transient nature.}

_{²⁹ Yugas (Epochs): Cosmic time cycles in Hindu cosmology that progress through long epochs, symbolizing large-scale change and the cyclical nature of existence.}

_{³⁰ Ritu Chakra (Seasonal Cycles): The cyclical progression of seasons in the Indian calendar, often used metaphorically to represent recurring shifts in human emotions and life phases.}

_{³¹ 51K views 10K reactions | মুক্তির আনন্দে গা*জার বুকে ছুটে চলছে.. (n.d.). URL: https://www.facebook.com/
watch/?v=2270308693393164}

_{³² জাহামজেদজ. (2022, November 28). বহু সংস্কৃতির মেলবন্ধন, বিবিধ আনন্দের রোশনাই. The Daily Star Bangla. URL: https://share.google/dyjSYfTXYhGJTCkCW}

_{³³ Durga Puja (Durgotsava): A major Hindu festival (September-October) primarily celebrated in West Bengal and East India. It honours the goddess Durgā and commemorates her victory over the buffalo demon Mahishāsura, symbolizing the triumph of good over evil (Dharma over Adharma).}

_{³⁴ Tomar, N. (2025, October 7). Arhaan Khan को मिली छोटी बहन, सातवें आसमान पर है मलाइका के बेटे की खुशी. News24 Hindi. URL: https://share.google/lnyHZh1oyWe8vuVR6}

_{³⁵ Anjan Ganguly, Debasis Biswas, and geetabitan.com contributors. (n.d.). Song phaguner nabin anande | Lyric and History. URL: https://www.geetabitan.com/lyrics/P/phaguner-nabin-aanande-lyric.html}

_{³⁶ Fagun (Phalgun): The twelfth month of the Bengali calendar (February–March), Fagun marks the arrival of spring in Bengal. It is associated with warmth, renewal, blossoming nature, and festivals such as Dol Utsav (Basanta Utsav), celebrated with music, colours, and expressions of joy.}

_{³⁷ Dol Utsavː In Bengal, Fagun ushers in Dol Utsav (also known as Basanta Utsav), a spring festival introduced by Rabindranath Tagore at Santiniketan. The celebration is marked by music, dance, vibrant colours, and poetic expressions of love and freedom—symbolizing renewal and the joyous spirit of spring.}

_{³⁸ Holiː Major Hindu festival (Feb/Mar) celebrating the arrival of spring, love, and the victory of good over evil. Festivities begin with Holikā Dahan (a bonfire ritual marking the legend of Prahlāda) and culminate in Rangwalī Holī, where people play by throwing coloured powder (gulāl) and water on each other, often symbolically blurring social distinctions.}

_{³⁹ Rabindranath Tagore — Songs — pooja — anandagan uthuk tabe baji. (n.d.). URL: https://www.tagoreweb.in/Songs/pooja-233/anandagan-uthuk-tabe-baji-4695}

_{⁴⁰ রিপোর্টব. ট. (2022, October 3). পুরো বাংলাদেশ পূজার আনন্দে বিভোর: স্বরাষ্ট্রমন্ত্রী. Bangla Tribune. URL: https://share.google/UzApjMR2ic5hXvgJB}

_{⁴¹ Desk, T., Sarkar, S., & Desk, T. (2025b, May 23). “ফিরে এসো, আমরা মেনে নিয়েছি. . .” শুনেই বাড়ি ফিরছিল আনন্দে আত্মহারা যুগল! নিমেষে যা ঘটল, ভালবাসা খান খান! News18 বাংলা. URL: https://bengali.news18.com/photogallery/national/love-story-terrible-news-here-is-what-happened-to-a-couple-while-eloping-to-get-married-shocking-incident-will-shake-you-in-moment-al18-tc-sanj-2177956.html}

_{⁴² Sukh Sagar ke Kinare Mera Gaon (Full Song) — Brahmakumar Dr. Ambrish Shah — Download or Listen Free — JioSAaVN. (n.d.). JioSaavn. URL: https://share.google/ZYqSRrPq5IhIPSjVT}

_{⁴³ Diwali/Deepavali: A major pan-Indian Hindu festival marked by the lighting of oil lamps (diyas), fireworks, and the sharing of sweets. It symbolizes the victory of light over darkness and is associated with prosperity and communal joy. In Bengal, Diwali coincides with Kali Puja, where devotees worship the goddess Kali with lamps and offerings, emphasizing protection, renewal, and positive energy.}

_{⁴⁴ দীপাবলিতে সুখের জোয়ার, ৩০ বছর পর ৩ রাশিতে বাম্পার যোগ. (2024, October 5). URL: https://share.google/5KbAKe5PRcAApVDfE}

Об авторах

Намрата Пол

Индийский технологический институт

Email: namratapaul.rs.hss21@itbhu.ac.in
ORCID iD: 0009-0009-8917-1853

доктор философии (PhD), старший научный сотрудник кафедры гуманитарных исследований

Варанаси, Индия

Абхиджит Сатсанги

Индийский технологический институт

Email: abhijeet.satsangi@gla.ac.in
ORCID iD: 0009-0005-7095-877X

доктор философии (PhD), доцент кафедры английского языка

Варанаси, Индия

Санджукта Гош

Индийский технологический институт

Автор, ответственный за переписку.
Email: sanjukta.hss@iitbhu.ac.in
ORCID iD: 0000-0001-6119-9058

доктор философии (PhD), доцент кафедры гуманитарных исследований

Варанаси, Индия

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