RUDN Journal of Psychology and PedagogicsRUDN Journal of Psychology and PedagogicsВестник Российского университета дружбы народов. Серия: Психология и педагогика2313-16832313-1705Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba (RUDN University)3696210.22363/2313-1683-2023-20-3-526-542BSCKGDDEVELOPMENT OF SELF-REGULATION: AGE SPECIFICS AND KEY FACTORSРАЗВИТИЕ САМОРЕГУЛЯЦИИ: ВОЗРАСТНАЯ СПЕЦИФИКА И КЛЮЧЕВЫЕ ФАКТОРЫResearch ArticlePreschoolers’ Executive Function Development and Maternal Birth Experience: The Moderating Role of Depression and the Mode of DeliveryРазвитие регуляторных функций ребенка и опыт родов матери: моделирующая роль депрессии и способа родовhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-9472-828356662129900E-3444-20173608-2625YakupovaVera A.ЯкуповаВера Анатольевна

Ph.D. in Psychology, is Researcher, Faculty of Psychology

кандидат психологических наук, научный сотрудник, факультет психологии

vera.a.romanova@gmail.comhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-5935-249857191674783SuarezAnna D.СуарэзАнна Дмитриевна

Ph.D. in Psychology, is Researcher, Faculty of Psychology

кандидат психологических наук, научный сотрудник, факультет психологии

anna.suarez.fig@gmail.comhttps://orcid.org/0009-0004-1517-67352599-0271ShraibmanLiubov A.ШрайбманЛюбовь Анатольевна

Doula, Association of Professional Doulas

доула, Ассоциация профессиональных доул

doula.nsk@gmail.comLomonosov Moscow State UniversityМосковский государственный университет имени М.В. ЛомоносоваAssociation of Professional DoulasАссоциация профессиональных доул06122023203Phenomenology of Childhood in Contemporary Research ContextsФеноменология детства в современных исследовательских контекстах52654206122023Copyright ©; 2023, Yakupova V.A., Suarez A.D., Shraibman L.A.Copyright ©; 2023, Якупова В.А., Суарэз А.Д., Шрайбман Л.А.2023Yakupova V.A., Suarez A.D., Shraibman L.A.Якупова В.А., Суарэз А.Д., Шрайбман Л.А.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0https://journals.rudn.ru/psychology-pedagogics/article/view/36962

Early executive functioning is a crucial precursor to the future cognitive and behavioral development of children. Given that the mother is typically the child’s primary caregiver, her maternal behavior may be an important factor that either facilitates or hinders the child’s cognitive development, especially if the mother suffers from depression. It is important to analyze these effects, taking into consideration the mother’s birth experience. This study focuses on assessing the child’s executive functions, the mother’s concomitant depression and her birth experience, including the mode of delivery. The results obtained have shown no significant relationship between the executive function performance and the mother’s concomitant depression. However, significant relationships have been found between the child’s executive function performance and complications during the mother’s pregnancy, birth and mode of delivery. The regression analysis shows that cesarean birth reduces the child’s overall executive function performance by 1 point, while the data of the moderation analysis including the mode of delivery and mother’s depression are not statistically significant. The total executive performance score is largely related to the mother’s educational level. The mother’s perinatal depression may have a stronger adverse effect on the child’s development than her concomitant depression. A higher level of the mother’s education may be a protective factor that could potentially offset the cesarean birth effect.

Развитие регуляторных функций в раннем возрасте является предиктором когнитивного и поведенческого развития ребенка. Учитывая, что мать, как правило, - главный заботящийся взрослый ребенка, материнское поведение может быть важным фактором, который либо способствует, либо препятствует его когнитивному развитию, особенно если мать страдает депрессией. Важно анализировать влияние состояния матери на развитие регуляторных функций ребенка, принимая во внимание опыт родов. Исследование посвящено оценке уровня развития регуляторных функций ребенка, текущей депрессии матери и ее опыта родов, включая способ родов. Полученные результаты показали отсутствие значимой связи между развитием регуляторных функций ребенка и сопутствующей материнской депрессией. Выявлены значимые связи между уровнем развития регуляторных функций ребенка, осложнениями во время беременности и родов и способом родов. Регрессионный анализ показывает, что кесарево сечение снижает общий балл по методикам оценки регуляторных функций на 1 балл, в то время как анализ модерации, включая способ рождения и родительскую депрессию, не является статистически значимым. Уровень развития регуляторных функций ребенка значимо связан с уровнем образования родителя. Материнская перинатальная депрессия может оказывать более сильное неблагоприятное воздействие на развитие ребенка, чем актуальная материнская депрессия. Более высокий уровень материнского образования может выступать защитным фактором, который потенциально способен компенсировать влияние кесарева сечения.

executive functionsparental depressionbirth experiencechild developmentcognitive developmentmode of deliveryрегуляторные функцииродительская депрессияопыт родовразвитие ребенкакогнитивное развитиеспособ родовThe study was financially supported by the Russian Science Foundation (RSF) within the framework of scientific project no. 22-18-00356.Исследование выполнено при финансовой поддержке Российского научного фонда (РНФ) в рамках научного проекта № 22-18-00356.Abdollahi, F., Rezai Abhari, F., & Zarghami, M. (2017). Post-partum depression effect on child health and development. Acta Medica Iranica, 55(2), 109-114.Beck, A.T., Ward, C.H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4(6), 561-571. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004Belleau, E.L., Phillips, M.L., Birmaher, B., Axelson, D.A., & Ladouceur, C.D. (2013). Aberrant executive attention in unaffected youth at familial risk for mood disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 147(1-3), 397-400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.08.020Beshanova, E.V. (2020). Mediaeffects in Russian internet: Case of depression and anxiety discourse (Bachelor in Advertising and Public Relations Thesis). Moscow: HSE University. (In Russ.)Бешанова Е.В. Медиаэффекты в российском интернет-пространстве на примере дискурса депрессии и тревожных расстройств: выпускная работа бакалавра по направлению «Реклама и связи с общественностью». М.: Высшая школа экономики, 2020.Best, J.R., Miller, P.H., & Jones, L.L. (2009). Executive functions after age 5: Changes and correlates. Developmental Review, 29(3), 180-200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.05.002Bierman, K.L., Nix, R.L., Greenberg, M.T., Blair, C., & Domitrovich, C.E. (2008). Executive functions and school readiness intervention: Impact, moderation, and mediation in the Head Start REDI program. Development and Psychopathology, 20(3), 821-843. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579408000394Bierman, K.L., Torres, M.M., Domitrovich, C.E., Welsh, J.A., & Gest, S.D. (2009). Behavioral and cognitive readiness for school: Cross-domain associations for children attending head start. Social Development, 18(2), 305-323. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00490.xBlair, C., & Razza, R.P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78(2), 647-663. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.xBlake, J.A., Gardner, M., Najman, J., & Scott, J.G. (2021). The association of birth by caesarean section and cognitive outcomes in offspring: A systematic review. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 56(4), 533-545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-020-02008-2Blankson, A.N., O’Brien, M., Leerkes, E.M., Marcovitch, S., & Calkins, S.D. (2012). Differentiating processes of control and understanding in the early development of emotion and cognition. Social Development, 21(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2011.00593.xBluett-Duncan, M., Kishore, M.T., Patil, D.M., Satyanarayana, V.A., & Sharp, H. (2021). A systematic review of the association between perinatal depression and cognitive development in infancy in low and middle-income countries. PLOS ONE, 16(6), e0253790. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253790Bull, R., Espy, K.A., & Wiebe, S.A. (2008). Short-term memory, working memory, and executive functioning in preschoolers: Longitudinal predictors of mathematical achievement at age 7 years. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33(3), 205-228. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640801982312Chen, Y., Wu, L., Zhang, W., Zou, L., Li, G., & Fan, L. (2016). Delivery modes and pregnancy outcomes of low birth weight infants in China. Journal of Perinatology, 36(1), 41-46. https://doi.org/10.1038/jp.2015.137Clark, C.A.C., Pritchard, V.E., & Woodward, L.J. (2010). Preschool executive functioning abilities predict early mathematics achievement. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1176-1191. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019672Conway, A., Waldfogel, J., & Wang, Y. (2018). Parent education and income gradients in children's executive functions at kindergarten entry. Children and Youth Services Review, 91, 329-337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.06.009Cook, N., Ayers, S., & Horsch, A. (2018). Maternal posttraumatic stress disorder during the perinatal period and child outcomes: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 225, 18-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.07.045Curran, E.A., Cryan, J.F., Kenny, L.C., Dinan, T.G., Kearney, P.M., & Khashan, A.S. (2016). Obstetrical mode of delivery and childhood behavior and psychological development in a British cohort. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(2), 603-614. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2616-1Curran, E.A., Dalman, C., Kearney, P.M., Kenny, L.C., Cryan, J.F., Dinan, T.G., & Khashan, A.S. (2015). Association between obstetric mode of delivery and autism spectrum disorder: A population-based sibling design study. JAMA Psychiatry, 72(9), 935-942. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0846Curran, E.A., Kenny, L.C., Dalman, C., Kearney, P.M., Cryan, J.F., Dinan, T.G., & Khashan, A.S. (2017). Birth by caesarean section and school performance in Swedish adolescentsa population-based study. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 17(1), 121. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-017-1304-xDe Cock, E.S.A., Henrichs, J., Klimstra, T.A., Janneke B.M. Maas, A., Vreeswijk, C.M.J.M., Meeus, W.H.J., & van Bakel, H.J.A. (2017). Longitudinal associations between parental bonding, parenting stress, and executive functioning in toddlerhood. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(6), 1723-1733. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0679-7Erickson, N., Julian, M., & Muzik, M. (2019). Perinatal depression, PTSD, and trauma: Impact on mother - infant attachment and interventions to mitigate the transmission of risk. International Review of Psychiatry, 31(3), 245-263. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2018.1563529Faleschini, S., Rifas-Shiman, S.L., Tiemeier, H., Oken, E., & Hivert, M.-F. (2019). Associations of prenatal and postnatal maternal depressive symptoms with offspring cognition and behavior in mid-childhood: A prospective cohort study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(6), 1007. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061007Gagne, J.R. (2017). Self-control in childhood: A synthesis of perspectives and focus on early development. Child Development Perspectives, 11(2), 127-132. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12223Garon, N., Bryson, S.E., & Smith, I.M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134(1), 31-60. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31Gergely, G., & Unoka, Z. (2008). The development of the unreflective self. In F.N. Busch (Ed.), Mentalization: Theoretical Considerations, Research Findings, and Clinical Implications (pp. 57-102). New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203927250Gluck, O., Tairy, D., Bar, J., & Barda, G. (2021). The impact of mode of delivery on neonatal outcome in preterm births. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine, 34(8), 1183-1189. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767058.2019.1627319Goodman, S.H., Rouse, M.H., Connell, A.M., Broth, M.R., Hall, C.M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(1), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-010-0080-1Gueron-Sela, N., Camerota, M., Willoughby, M.T., Vernon-Feagans, L., Cox, M.J., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators (2018). Maternal depressive symptoms, mother-child interactions, and children’s executive function. Developmental Psychology, 54(1), 71-82. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000389Hentges, R.F., Graham, S.A., Fearon, P., Tough, S., & Madigan, S. (2020). The chronicity and timing of prenatal and antenatal maternal depression and anxiety on child outcomes at age 5. Depression and Anxiety, 37(6), 576-586. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.23039Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2011). Individual differences in growth in executive function across the transition to school predict externalizing and internalizing behaviors and self-perceived academic success at 6 years of age. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(3), 663-676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.06.005Hughes, C., Roman, G., Hart, M.J., & Ensor, R. (2013). Does maternal depression predict young children’s executive function? - A 4-year longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(2), 169-177. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12014Huot, R.L., Brennan, P.A., Stowe, Z.N., Plotsky, P.M., & Walker, E.F. (2004). Negative affect in offspring of depressed mothers is predicted by infant cortisol levels at 6 months and maternal depression during pregnancy, but not postpartum. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1032(1), 234-236. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1314.028Khadem, N., & Khadivzadeh, T. (2010). The intelligence quotient of school aged children delivered by cesarean section and vaginal delivery. Iranian Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Research, 15(3), 135-140.Khalaf, S.Y.A., O’Neill, S.M., O’Keeffe, L.M., Henriksen, T.B., Kenny, L.C., Cryan, J.F., & Khashan, A.S. (2015). The impact of obstetric mode of delivery on childhood behavior. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50(10), 1557-1567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-015-1055-9Korkman, M., Kirk, U., & Kemp, S. (2007). NEPSY II: Administrative manual (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment, PsychCorp.Ku, S., & Feng, X. (2023). Maternal depressive symptoms and the growth of child executive function: Mediation by maternal sensitivity. Journal of Family Psychology, 37(4), 421-431. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000832Minguez-Milio, J.A., Alcázar, J.L., Aubá, M., Ruiz-Zambrana, Á., & Minguez, J. (2011). Perinatal outcome and long-term follow-up of extremely low birth weight infants depending on the mode of delivery. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine, 24(10), 1235-1238. https://doi.org/10.3109/14767058.2011.552990Miyake, A., & Friedman, N.P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(1), 8-14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411429458Miyake, A., Friedman, N.P., Emerson, M.J., Witzki, A.H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T.D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49-100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734Monette, S., Bigras, M., & Guay, M.-C. (2015). Executive functions in kindergarteners with high levels of disruptive behaviours. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 33(4), 446-463. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12105Nolvi, S., Pesonen, H., Bridgett, D.J., Korja, R., Kataja, E.-L., Karlsson, H., & Karlsson, L. (2018). Infant sex moderates the effects of maternal preand postnatal stress on executive functioning at 8 months of age. Infancy, 23(2), 194-210. https://doi.org/10.1111/infa.12206Nordenswan, E., Deater-Deckard, K., Karrasch, M., Laine, M., Kataja, E.-L., Holmberg, E., Eskola, E., Hakanen, H., Karlsson, H., Karlsson, L., & Korja, R. (2021). Maternal executive functioning, emotional availability and psychological distress during toddlerhood: A FinnBrain birth cohort study. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 735734. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.735734Operto, F.F., Smirni, D., Scuoppo, C., Padovano, C., Vivenzio, V., Quatrosi, G., Carotenuto, M., Precenzano, F., & Pastorino, G.M.G. (2021). Neuropsychological profile, emotional/ behavioral problems, and parental stress in children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Brain Sciences, 11(5), 584. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11050584Pearson, R.M., Bornstein, M.H., Cordero, M., Scerif, G., Mahedy, L., Evans, J., Abioye, A., & Stein, A. (2016). Maternal perinatal mental health and offspring academic achievement at age 16: The mediating role of childhood executive function. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57(4), 491-501. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12483Polidano, C., Zhu, A., & Bornstein, J.C. (2017). The relation between cesarean birth and child cognitive development. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 11483. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-10831-yPosner, M.I., & Rothbart, M.K. (1998). Summary and commentary: Developing attentional skills. In J.E. Richards (Ed.), Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention: A Developmental Perspective (1st ed.) (pp. 317-323). New York: Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410603906Power, J., van IJzendoorn, M., Lewis, A.J., Chen, W., & Galbally, M. (2021). Maternal perinatal depression and child executive function: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 291, 218-234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.05.003Priel, A., Zeev-Wolf, M., Djalovski, A., & Feldman, R. (2020). Maternal depression impairs child emotion understanding and executive functions: The role of dysregulated maternal care across the first decade of life. Emotion, 20(6), 1042-1058. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000614Robson, S.J., Vally, H., Abdel-Latif, M.E., Yu, M., & Westrupp, E. (2015). Childhood health and developmental outcomes after cesarean birth in an Australian cohort. Pediatrics, 136(5), e1285-e1293. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-1400Roman, G.D., Ensor, R., & Hughes, C. (2016). Does executive function mediate the path from mothers’ depressive symptoms to young children’s problem behaviors? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 142, 158-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.09.022Sandall, J., Tribe, R.M., Avery, L., Mola, G., Visser, G.H., Homer, C.S., Gibbons, D., Kelly, N.M., Kennedy, H.P., Kidanto, H., Taylor, P., & Temmerman, M. (2018). Short-term and long-term effects of caesarean section on the health of women and children. The Lancet, 392(10155), 1349-1357. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(18)31930-5Smithers, L.G., Mol, B.W., Wilkinson, C., & Lynch, J.W. (2016). Implications of caesarean section for children's school achievement: A population-based study. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 56(4), 374-380. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajo.12475Snyder, H.R. (2013). Major depressive disorder is associated with broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive function: A meta-analysis and review. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 81-132. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028727Snyder, H.R., Miyake, A., & Hankin, B.L. (2015). Advancing understanding of executive function impairments and psychopathology: Bridging the gap between clinical and cognitive approaches. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 328. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00328Sulik, M.J., Blair, C., Mills-Koonce, R., Berry, D., Greenberg, M., & Family Life Project Investigators (2015). Early parenting and the development of externalizing behavior problems: Longitudinal mediation through children's executive function. Child Development, 86(5), 1588-1603. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12386Swingler, M.M., Perry, N.B., & Calkins, S.D. (2015). Neural plasticity and the development of attention: Intrinsic and extrinsic influences. Development and Psychopathology, 27(2), 443-457. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579415000085Tikhomirova, T.N., Malykh, A.S., Lysenkova, I.A., & Malykh, S.B. (2021). Cross-cultural analysis of models of the relationship between the cognitive abilities and academic achievement in primary school education. Psychology in Russia: State of the Art, 14(4), 94-110. https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2021.0407Tran, T.D., Biggs, B.-A., Tran, T., Simpson, J.A., Hanieh, S., Dwyer, T., & Fisher, J. (2013). Impact on infants’ cognitive development of antenatal exposure to iron deficiency disorder and common mental disorders. PLoS ONE, 8(9), e74876. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074876Utendale, W.T., Hubert, M., Saint-Pierre, A.B., & Hastings, P.D. (2011). Neurocognitive development and externalizing problems: The role of inhibitory control deficits from 4 to 6 years. Aggressive Behavior, 37(5), 476-488. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20403Van Ee, E., Kleber, R.J., & Jongmans, M.J. (2016). Relational patterns between caregivers with PTSD and their nonexposed children. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17(2), 186-203. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015584355Veraksa, A., Almazova, O., & Bukhalenkova, D. (2020). Studying executive functions in senior preschoolers. PsyCh Journal, 9(1), 144-146. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.310Veraksa, N.E., Almazova, O.V., & Tarasova, K.S. (2022). Dialectical and formal-logical thinking in senior preschoolers. Russian Psychological Journal, 19(2), 129-149. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.21702/rpj.2022.2.10Веракса Н.Е., Алмазова О.В., Тарасова К.С. Диалектическое и формально-логическое мышление старших дошкольников // Российский психологический журнал. 2022. Т. 19. № 2. С. 129-149. https://doi.org/10.21702/rpj.2022.2.10Wang, Y., & Dix, T. (2017). Mothers’ depressive symptoms in infancy and children’s adjustment in grade school: The role of children’s sustained attention and executive function. Developmental Psychology, 53(9), 1666-1679. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000373Waters, N.E., Ahmed, S.F., Tang, S., Morrison, F.J., & Davis-Kean, P.E. (2021). Pathways from socioeconomic status to early academic achievement: The role of specific executive functions. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 54, 321-331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.09.008Welsh, M.C., Friedman, S.L., & Spieker, S.J. (2006). Executive functions in developing children: Current conceptualizations and questions for the future. In K. McCartney & D. Phillips (Eds.). Blackwell Handbook of Early Childhood Development (pp. 167-187). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470757703.ch9Yakupova, V.A. (2018). The impact of psychological and physiological conditions of motherhood on postnatal depression. Russian Psychological Journal, 15(1), 8-23. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.21702/rpj.2018.1.1Якупова В.А. Роль психологических и физиологических условий материнства в развитии послеродовой депрессии // Российский психологический журнал. 2018. Т. 15. № 1. С. 8-23. https://doi.org/10.21702/rpj.2018.1.1Zavez, A., Thurston, S.W., Rand, M.D., Mruzek, D.W., Love, T., Smith, T., Shamlaye, C.F., & van Wijngaarden, E. (2021). Delivery mode and child development at 20 months of age and 7 years of age in the Republic of Seychelles. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 25(12), 1930-1938. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-021-03239-8Zelazo, P.D. (2006). The Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS): A method of assessing executive function in children. Nature Protocols, 1(1), 297-301. https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2006.46Zelazo, P.D., Müller, U., Frye, D., Marcovitch, S., Argitis, G., Boseovski, J., Chiang, J. K., Hongwanishkul, D., Schuster, B.V., & Sutherland, A. (2003). The development of executive function in early childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 68(3), vii-viii. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0037-976x.2003.00260.xZhang, T., Luo, Z.-C., Ji, Y., Chen, Y., Ma, R., Fan, P., Tang, N., Li, J., Tian, Y., Zhang, J., & Ouyang, F. (2023). The impact of maternal depression, anxiety, and stress on early neurodevelopment in boys and girls. Journal of Affective Disorders, 321, 74-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.10.030