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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">RUDN Journal of Political Science</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">RUDN Journal of Political Science</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Вестник Российского университета дружбы народов. Серия: Политология</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">2313-1438</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">2313-1446</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba (RUDN University)</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">46515</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.22363/2313-1438-2025-27-3-430-443</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="edn">JIGGWO</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>POLITICS ONLINE</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ПОЛИТИКА В СЕТИ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">Social Media as an Alter Ego of Reality: What Does Affective Political Polarization Teach Us?</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Социальные медиа как альтер эго реальности: о чем говорит аффективная политическая поляризация?</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6240-5714</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Stukal</surname><given-names>Denis K.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Стукал</surname><given-names>Денис Константинович</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Ph.D in Political Science, Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>кандидат политических наук, декан, факультет социальных наук</p></bio><email>dstukal@hse.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6667-0686</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Shilina</surname><given-names>Anna N.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Шилина</surname><given-names>Анна Николаевна</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Ph.D student, School of Politics and Governance</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>аспирант, Аспирантская школа по политическим наукам</p></bio><email>ashilina@hse.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8002-7307</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Akhremenko</surname><given-names>Andrei S.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Ахременко</surname><given-names>Андрей Сергеевич</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Doctor of Political Science, Professor, Leading Research fellow, Politics &amp; Psychology Research Laboratory</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>доктор политических наук, профессор, ведущий научный сотрудник, Научно-учебная лаборатория политико-психологических исследований</p></bio><email>aakhremenko@hse.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">HSE University</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики»</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="pub" iso-8601-date="2025-10-15" publication-format="electronic"><day>15</day><month>10</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><volume>27</volume><issue>3</issue><issue-title xml:lang="en">Digital policies</issue-title><issue-title xml:lang="ru">Цифровая политика</issue-title><fpage>430</fpage><lpage>443</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2025-10-18"><day>18</day><month>10</month><year>2025</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; 2025, Stukal D.K., Shilina A.N., Akhremenko A.S.</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; 2025, Стукал Д.К., Шилина А.Н., Ахременко А.С.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Stukal D.K., Shilina A.N., Akhremenko A.S.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Стукал Д.К., Шилина А.Н., Ахременко А.С.</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/"/><license><ali:license_ref xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0</ali:license_ref></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://journals.rudn.ru/political-science/article/view/46515">https://journals.rudn.ru/political-science/article/view/46515</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p>Affective political polarization is comprehensively considered in combination of its emotional, behavioral and cognitive aspects. They manifest themselves in the differences between an individual’s attitude towards politically like-minded people (the in-group) and opponents (the out-group), including emotions experienced, willingness to cooperate, and a tendency to attribute positive or negative qualities. Particular attention is paid to the problem of differences between the intensity of manifestations of affective political polarization in the online environment compared to traditional forms of communication. Most contemporary researchers predict a higher level of polarization within online interactions. This hypothesis is based on the properties of Internet communication, which make it easier for the user to manage the network of contacts and sources of information and lead to the emergence of “echo chambers” and “filter bubbles”. The empirical evidence in favor of this mechanism, however, is rather limited. Indeed, there is very scarce research that would directly compare the levels of affective polarization in the digital and traditional environments. This problem is addressed by the authors based on survey data collected in 2025 among Russian respondents. We measure all key indicators of affective polarization for both online and offline environments, thereby making it possible to compare them directly. We build on previous research and use the attitude towards the country’s leadership as a key polarizing dimension. We analyzed data using correlation, regression and principal component analyses. Our results show that affective polarization demonstrates overall high consistency in the physical world and on social media. Regression analysis does not reveal any significant differences in levels or factors of affective polarization in the two environments.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p>Аффективная политическая поляризация комплексно рассматривается в сочетании ее эмоциональных, поведенческих и когнитивных аспектов. Все они проявляются в различиях между отношением индивида к политическим единомышленникам (ингруппе) и оппонентам (аутгруппе): в испытываемых эмоциях, готовности к сотрудничеству, склонности приписывать положительные или отрицательные качества. Особое внимание уделено проблеме различий между интенсивностью проявлений аффективной политической поляризации в онлайн-среде по сравнению с традиционными формами коммуникации. Большинство современных исследователей склоняются к гипотезе о более высоком уровне поляризации в рамках онлайн-взаимодействий. Данная гипотеза опирается на свойства интернет-общения, которые облегчают пользователю управление сетью контактов и источников информации и порождают феномены «эхо-камер» и «пузырей фильтров». Последние способствуют психологическому восприятию точки зрения единомышленников как единственно «нормальной» и увеличению эмоциональной дистанции по отношению к политическим оппонентам. При этом эмпирические свидетельства в пользу этого механизма довольно ограничены; крайне мало исследований, которые ставили бы задачу прямого сравнения аффективной поляризации в цифровой и традиционной средах. Эта задача решается авторами на основе опросных данных, собранных в 2025 г. среди российских респондентов. Все ключевые индикаторы аффективной поляризации измеряются для двух ситуаций - онлайн и офлайн, что обеспечивает возможность их непосредственного сопоставления. С опорой на предыдущие исследования в качестве ключевого поляризующего признака рассматривается отношение к руководству страны. Данные проанализированы с помощью корреляционного и регрессионного анализа, а также методом главных компонент. Анализ показывает, что аффективная поляризация демонстрирует в целом высокую согласованность в физическом мире и в социальных сетях. Результаты регрессии не позволяют выявить существенные расхождения в уровнях и факторах, влияющих на аффективную поляризацию, в двух средах.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>polarization</kwd><kwd>affective polarization</kwd><kwd>VK</kwd><kwd>social media</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>поляризация</kwd><kwd>аффективная поляризация</kwd><kwd>ВКонтакте</kwd><kwd>социальные сети</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group><award-group><funding-source><institution-wrap><institution xml:lang="ru">Статья подготовлена в ходе проведения исследования в рамках Программы фундаментальных исследований Национального исследовательского университета «Высшая школа экономики» (НИУ ВШЭ).</institution></institution-wrap><institution-wrap><institution xml:lang="en">The article was prepared within the framework of the Basic Research Program at HSE University.</institution></institution-wrap></funding-source></award-group></funding-group></article-meta><fn-group/></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Akhremenko, A.S. &amp; Brodovskaya, E.V. 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