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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">RUDN Journal of Political Science</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">RUDN Journal of Political Science</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Вестник Российского университета дружбы народов. Серия: Политология</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">2313-1438</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">2313-1446</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba (RUDN University)</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">31852</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.22363/2313-1438-2022-24-3-480-498</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>POLITICAL POLARIZATION AND INTERNET PROTEST</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ПОЛИТИЧЕСКАЯ ПОЛЯРИЗАЦИЯ И ИНТЕРНЕТ-ПРОТЕСТ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">Affective Political Polarization and Hate Speech: Made for Each Other?</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Аффективная политическая поляризация и язык ненависти: созданы друг для друга?</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6240-5714</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Stukal</surname><given-names>Denis K.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Стукал</surname><given-names>Денис Константинович</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Cand. Sci. (Pol. Sci.), PhD, Leading Research Fellow, Institute for Applied Political Studies</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>кандидат политических наук, PhD, ведущий научный сотрудник Института прикладных политических исследований</p></bio><email>dstukal@hse.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8002-7307</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Akhremenko</surname><given-names>Andrei S.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Ахременко</surname><given-names>Андрей Сергеевич</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Dr. Sci. (Pol. Sci.), Professor, School of Social Sciences</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>доктор политических наук, профессор факультета социальных наук</p></bio><email>aakhremenko@hse.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5244-8286</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Petrov</surname><given-names>Alexander P.C.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Петров</surname><given-names>Александр Пхоун Чжо</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Dr. Sci. (Applied Math.), Senior Researcher</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>доктор физико-математических, ведущий научный сотрудник</p></bio><email>petrov.alexander.p@yandex.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">National Research University Higher School of Economics</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики»</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff2"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Keldysh Institute for Applied Mathematics (Russian Academy of Sciences)</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Институт прикладной математики им. М.В. Келдыша Российской академии наук</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="pub" iso-8601-date="2022-09-07" publication-format="electronic"><day>07</day><month>09</month><year>2022</year></pub-date><volume>24</volume><issue>3</issue><issue-title xml:lang="en">Internet and Politics</issue-title><issue-title xml:lang="ru">Интернет и политика</issue-title><fpage>480</fpage><lpage>498</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2022-09-07"><day>07</day><month>09</month><year>2022</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; 2022, Stukal D.K., Akhremenko A.S., Petrov A.P.</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; 2022, Стукал Д.К., Ахременко А.С., Петров А.П.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2022</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Stukal D.K., Akhremenko A.S., Petrov A.P.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Стукал Д.К., Ахременко А.С., Петров А.П.</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/"/><license><ali:license_ref xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0</ali:license_ref></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://journals.rudn.ru/political-science/article/view/31852">https://journals.rudn.ru/political-science/article/view/31852</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p style="text-align: justify;">Abundant academic research has shown evidence of the growing polarization across the globe both in general and in terms of affective polarization. Previous research on this topic primarily employed reactive research methods like surveys or experiments, which however do not allow researchers to observe the behavior of the units of analysis in a natural setting. Presents an alternative approach that involves analyzing the observed behavior of social media users and identifying the key polarizing cleavages through the study of hate speech with respect to distinct target groups. We present a novel coding schema for textual data, which includes two components: first, an operationalized definition of hate speech as a phenomenon with at least one of the three elements - insult, discrimination, or aggression; and second, an original coding guide for human coders annotating the use of hate speech. We apply our approach to the analysis of empirical data that includes over 5000 posts on the social media platform VK about the meetings between the Presidents of Russia and Belarus in 2020-2021. After coding the collected data, we performed the empirical analysis that identified two generic cleavages. One is about domestic politics in Belarus and Russia, whereas the other is related to the opposition between these two countries on the one hand, and Western countries on the other. We also found an additional Russian/Belarusian cleavage that is peculiar to the collected dataset. Our methodology also allowed us to identify and analyze the dynamics of macro-groups that were targets of hate speech. Importantly, these results - as any other dynamic aspect of analysis - would be highly challenging in research based on reactive methods. Thereby our results highlight the prospects of applying the proposed methodology to a broad range of textual data, as well as the benefits of exploratory analysis that helps overcome the limitations of survey instruments.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p style="text-align: justify;">Многочисленные исследования указывают на прогрессирующий рост показателей политической поляризации в странах мира в целом, а также ее разновидности - аффективной поляризации. Предшествующие работы, посвященные данной проблеме, опирались почти исключительно на реактивные методы исследования (включая опросы и экспериментальные методики), не позволяющие наблюдать за поведением объектов анализа в естественной среде. В данном исследовании мы предлагаем альтернативный подход, основанный на анализе наблюдаемого поведения пользователей социальных сетей и выявлении ключевых поляризующих расколов путем анализа использования языка вражды в отношении различных целевых групп. Предложена оригинальная методика кодировки текстовых сообщений, включающая два ключевых компонента: операционализированное определение языка вражды как явления, содержащего хотя бы один из трех признаков: оскорбление, дискриминация, агрессия; а также оригинальный гайд для кодирования случаев использования языка вражды. Предлагаемая методика апробируется в работе на эмпирическом материале, включающем более 5000 сообщений, опубликованных в социальной сети ВКонтакте по тематике встреч Президентов России и Беларуси в 2020-2021 гг. Была проведена кодировка собранных данных, и на ее основе проведен анализ, выявивший две устойчивые линии раскола, связанные с внутриполитическими размежеваниями в этих странах и противопоставлением России/Беларуси странам Запада, а также третью, соответствующую противопоставлению по страновому российско-белорусскому признаку и являющуюся специфической для анализируемого массива. Проведенный анализ позволил также выявить макрогруппы объектов языка вражды во временном разрезе. Отметим, что этот результат, как и вообще обращение к динамическим аспектам процесса, были бы труднодоступными для исследования, опирающегося на реактивные методы. Полученные результаты указывают на возможность применения предлагаемой методики к широкому кругу текстовых материалов, а использование методов разведывательного анализа к обработке получаемых данных позволяет избежать ограничений, характерных для опросных инструментов.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>polarization</kwd><kwd>affective polarization</kwd><kwd>hate speech</kwd><kwd>VK</kwd><kwd>social media</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>поляризация</kwd><kwd>аффективная поляризация</kwd><kwd>язык вражды</kwd><kwd>язык ненависти</kwd><kwd>ВКонтакте</kwd><kwd>социальные сети</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group><award-group><funding-source><institution-wrap><institution xml:lang="ru">Исследование выполнено при финансовой поддержке РФФИ и АНО ЭИСИ в рамках научного проекта № 21-011-31340 «Политическая поляризация в России и Беларуси: эмпирический анализ „языка вражды‟ в социальных медиа».</institution></institution-wrap><institution-wrap><institution xml:lang="en">The study was supported of the RFBR and ANO EISS in the framework of scientific project No. 21-011-31340 “Political Polarization in Russia and Belarus: an empirical analysis of the “hate speech” in social media”.</institution></institution-wrap></funding-source></award-group></funding-group></article-meta></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><mixed-citation>Bode, L. 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