<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE root>
<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Discrete and Continuous Models and Applied Computational Science</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Discrete and Continuous Models and Applied Computational Science</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Discrete and Continuous Models and Applied Computational Science</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">2658-4670</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">2658-7149</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">Peoples' Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba (RUDN University)</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">52919</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.22363/2658-4670-2026-34-3-345-359</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="edn">RGASAA</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>Computer Science</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>Информатика и вычислительная техника</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">An accurate block error rate model for performance analysis of LEO NB-IoT communications systems</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Модель для анализа блочных ошибок в низкоорбитальных системах связи NB-IoT</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0002-0327-4739</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Shilonosov</surname><given-names>Danil V.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Шилоносов</surname><given-names>Д. В.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Student of the Department of Probability Theory and Cybersecurity, RUDN University</p></bio><email>shilonosov-dv@rudn.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0003-4821-2192</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Likhtenshtein</surname><given-names>Alina A.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Лихтенштейн</surname><given-names>А. А.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Student of the Department of Probability Theory and Cybersecurity, RUDN University</p></bio><email>1132229533@rudn.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1373-4014</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="scopus">57192573001</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Beschastnyi</surname><given-names>Vitalii A.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Бесчастный</surname><given-names>В. А.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, assistant professor of the Department of Probability Theory and Cybersecurity, RUDN University</p></bio><email>beschastnyy-va@rudn.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2655-4805</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="scopus">35106984800</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="researcherid">E-5620-2014</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Gaidamaka</surname><given-names>Yuliya V.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Гайдамака</surname><given-names>Ю. В.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Full Professor of Department of Probability Theory and Cybersecurity, RUDN University; Senior Researcher of Institute of Informatics Problems of Federal Research Center ``Computer Science and Control'' Russian Academy of Sciences</p></bio><email>gaydamaka-yuv@rudn.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">RUDN University</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Российский университет дружбы народов</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff2"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Federal Research Center ``Computer Science and Control'' Russian Academy of Sciences</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Федеральный исследовательский центр ``Информатика и управление'' РАН</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="pub" iso-8601-date="2026-10-15" publication-format="electronic"><day>15</day><month>10</month><year>2026</year></pub-date><volume>34</volume><issue>3</issue><issue-title xml:lang="en">VOL 34, NO3 (2026)</issue-title><issue-title xml:lang="ru">ТОМ 34, №3 (2026)</issue-title><fpage>345</fpage><lpage>359</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2026-10-19"><day>19</day><month>10</month><year>2026</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; 2026, Shilonosov D.V., Likhtenshtein A.A., Beschastnyi V.A., Gaidamaka Y.V.</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; 2026, Шилоносов Д.В., Лихтенштейн А.А., Бесчастный В.А., Гайдамака Ю.В.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2026</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Shilonosov D.V., Likhtenshtein A.A., Beschastnyi V.A., Gaidamaka Y.V.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Шилоносов Д.В., Лихтенштейн А.А., Бесчастный В.А., Гайдамака Ю.В.</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/"/><license><ali:license_ref xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0</ali:license_ref></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://journals.rudn.ru/miph/article/view/52919">https://journals.rudn.ru/miph/article/view/52919</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p>Background: The extension of NB-IoT to LEO satellite systems enables mMTC in remote areas beyond terrestrial coverage. However, LEO NB-IoT faces significant physical layer challenges, including extreme path loss, rapid orbital dynamics, and blockage by buildings, forests, and hills. Existing Markov chain propagation models fail to capture the fine-grained elevation-dependent variability required for transmission optimization. Purpose: This study develops an accurate BLER model for LEO NB-IoT that accounts for elevation angle, deployment-specific shadowing, and scintillation, enabling dynamic scheduling to improve reliability and energy efficiency. Methods: We propose a fine-grained model incorporating ITU-R P.681-11 Loo parameterization with PCHIP interpolation for arbitrary elevations, integrating free-space loss, elevation-dependent scintillation, atmospheric absorption, and two-state Markov shadowing with urban/village/rural parameters. The BLER is estimated via Monte Carlo simulations with $10^5$ samples and link-budget analysis for repetitions $N_{\text{rep}}\in\{1,2,4,8,16,32,64,128\}$. Results: Elevation angle is the dominant factor: at EIRP=42 dBm and $N_{\text{rep}}=1$, BLER falls from 1 at $20^\circ$ to &lt;0.1 at $70^\circ$. Deployment conditions have secondary but measurable effects; urban scenarios show up to 0.4 higher BLER than villages at the same elevation. Increasing the number of repetitions to 128 shifts the BLER curves by 8-10 dBm, whereas $N_{\text{rep}}=4$ yields a near-zero BLER at $50^\circ$ in all scenarios. Conclusions: Fixed-time transmission is suboptimal; UEs can achieve near-zero BLER by waiting for elevations above $50^\circ$ with moderate repetitions. Our model enables elevation-aware scheduling from ephemeris data without requiring real-time sounding, offering a practical framework for reliable and energy-efficient LEO NB-IoT communications under diverse environmental conditions.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p>Актуальность: Распространение технологии узкополосного интернета вещей (NB-IoT) на низкоорбитальные (LEO) спутниковые системы обеспечило массовые межмашинное взаимодействие (mMTC) в удалённых районах, недоступных для наземных сетей. Однако системы NB-IoT на базе LEO сталкиваются с серьёзными проблемами физического уровня, включая экстремальные потери распространения, быстрое изменение орбитальных параметров и затенение сигнала окружающими объектами, такими как здания, леса и холмы. Существующие модели распространения, основанные на простых марковских цепях, не учитывают изменчивость канала в зависимости от угла места, необходимую для практических задач оптимизации. Цель: Данное исследование направлено на разработку точной модели для определения коэффициента блочных ошибок (BLER) в системах связи LEO NB-IoT, учитывающей угол поднятия, затенение и эффекты сцинтилляции, что позволит осуществлять динамическое планирование передачи для повышения надёжности и энергоэффективности. Методы: Предложена детерминированная модель распространения, включающая параметризацию канала по модели Loo из рекомендации ITU-R P.681-11 с интерполяцией методом кубических эрмитовых сплайнов (PCHIP) для произвольных углов. Модель объединяет потери в свободном пространстве, сцинтилляционные потери, зависящие от угла места, атмосферное поглощение и двухрежимное марковское затенение с параметрами, зависящими от условий развёртывания (город, деревня, лесистая местность). Оценка BLER выполнялась с помощью моделирования методом Монте-Карло. Результаты: Угол поднятия является доминирующим фактором, влияющим на BLER: при фиксированной эквивалентной изотропно-излучаемой мощности (EIRP) 42 дБм и $N_{\text{rep}}=1$ значение BLER уменьшается с приблизительно 1 при $20^\circ$ до менее 0.1 при $70^\circ$. Условия развёртывания оказывают вторичный, но измеримый эффект: в городских сценариях BLER может быть на 0.4 выше, чем в сельской местности при том же угле. Увеличение числа повторений с 1 до 128 сдвигает кривые BLER на 8-10 дБм, тогда как $N_{\text{rep}}=4$ обеспечивает надёжную связь ($\text{BLER} \approx 0$) при $50^\circ$ во всех рассмотренных условиях. Заключение: Предложенная модель BLER, учитывающая угол места и условия развёртывания, показывает, что схемы с фиксированными временными интервалами неоптимальны: абонентские устройства могут достичь почти нулевого BLER, откладывая передачу до моментов с более высокими углами места ($&gt; 50^\circ$) при умеренном числе повторений. Модель представляет собой инструмент планирования передачи на основе эфемеридных данных без необходимости зондирования канала в реальном времени, предлагая практический путь к надёжной и энергоэффективной связи LEO NB-IoT в различных условиях окружающей среды.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>mMTC</kwd><kwd>LEO</kwd><kwd>shadowing</kwd><kwd>elevation</kwd><kwd>NB-IoT</kwd><kwd>Non-Terrestrial Networks</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>массовое межмашинное взаимодействие</kwd><kwd>низкоорбитальные системы связи</kwd><kwd>затенение</kwd><kwd>NB-IoT</kwd><kwd>неназемные сети доступа</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group><award-group><funding-source><institution-wrap><institution xml:lang="en">The reported study was funded by RSF, projects no. 25-79-10142, https://rscf.ru/project/25-79-10142/.</institution></institution-wrap></funding-source></award-group></funding-group></article-meta><fn-group/></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><mixed-citation>ITU-R, Mobile Network Coverage, https://www.itu.int/itu-d/reports/statistics/2023/10/10/ff23-mobile-network-coverage/, Accessed: Feb. 2, 2025, 2024.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B2"><label>2.</label><mixed-citation>S. Kavuri, D. Moltchanov, A. Ometov, S. Andreev, and Y. Koucheryavy, “Performance Analysis of Onshore NB-IoT for Container Tracking During Near-the-Shore Vessel Navigation,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 2928-2943, 2020.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B3"><label>3.</label><mixed-citation>M. Hosseinian, J. P. Choi, S.-H. Chang, and J. Lee, “Review of 5G NTN Standards Development and Technical Challenges for Satellite Integration with the 5G Network,” IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, vol. 36, no. 8, pp. 22-31, 2021.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B4"><label>4.</label><mixed-citation>G. K. Kurt, M. G. Khoshkholgh, S. Alfattani, A. Ibrahim, T. S. Darwish, M. S. Alam, H. Yanikomeroglu, and A. Yongacoglu, “A Vision and Framework for the High Altitude Platform Station (HAPS) Networks of the Future,” IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 729-779, 2021.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B5"><label>5.</label><mixed-citation>T. D. Le, M. Stusek, R. Dvorak, P. Palurik, P. Masek, D. Moltchanov, and J. Hosek, “Downlink Coverage and Bit Rate Performance of LEO-Based Non-Terrestrial Networks for NB-IoT,” in 2025 17th International Congress on Ultra Modern Telecommunications and Control Systems and Workshops (ICUMT), IEEE, 2025, pp. 80-86.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B6"><label>6.</label><mixed-citation>H. Alves, K. Mikhaylov, and M. Hoyhtya, Integration of MTC and Satellites for IoT toward 6G Era. John Wiley &amp; Sons, 2024.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B7"><label>7.</label><mixed-citation>E. Rastogi, M. K. Maheshwari, A. Rastogi, and J. Jeong, “A Narrowband Internet-of-Things Communications Scheme Over Non-Terrestrial Networks,” in 2025 IEEE 11th International Conference on Network Softwarization (NetSoft), IEEE, 2025, pp. 240-248.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B8"><label>8.</label><mixed-citation>M. Conti, S. Andrenacci, N. Maturo, S. Chatzinotas, and A. Vanelli-Coralli, “Doppler Impact Analysis for NB-IoT and Satellite Systems Integration,” in ICC 2020 - 2020 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), 2020, pp. 1-7. DOI: 10.1109/ICC40277.2020.9149140</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B9"><label>9.</label><mixed-citation>R. Barbau, V. Deslandes, G. Jakllari, J. Tronc, J.-F. Chouteau, and A.-L. Beylot, “NB-IoT over GEO Satellite: Performance Analysis,” in 2020 10th Advanced Satellite Multimedia Systems Conference and the 16th Signal Processing for Space Communications Workshop (ASMS/SPSC), 2020, pp. 1-8. DOI: 10.1109/ASMS/SPSC48805.2020.9268829</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B10"><label>10.</label><mixed-citation>R. Dvorak, P. Palurik, T. D. Le, M. Stusek, P. Masek, D. Moltchanov, and J. Hosek, “Verification of Communication Parameters for NTN Communication,” in 2025 17th International Congress on Ultra Modern Telecommunications and Control Systems and Workshops (ICUMT), IEEE, 2025, pp. 87-93.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B11"><label>11.</label><mixed-citation>A. S. Shurakov, E. V. Mokrov, A. N. Prikhodko, M. I. Ershova, V. O. Begishev, A. A. Khakimov, Y. A. Koucheryavy, and G. N. Gol’tsman, “The recent progress in terahertz channel characterization and system design,” Discrete and Continuous Models and Applied Computational Science, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 181-201, 2024.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B12"><label>12.</label><mixed-citation>ITU-R, “Propagation data required for the design systems in the land mobile-satellite service,” ITU-R, ITU-R P.681, 2019, P Series; Radiowave propagation.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B13"><label>13.</label><mixed-citation>N. Chuberre and C. Michel, Satellite Components for the 5G System, https://www.3gpp.org/news-events/3gpp-news/sat-ntn, Accessed: Mar. 30, 2025, 3GPP, 2018.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B14"><label>14.</label><mixed-citation>3GPP, “Feasibility Study on New Services and Markets Technology Enablers for Critical Communications; Stage 1,” 3GPP, 3GPP TR 22.862 V14.2.0, 2016, Release 14.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B15"><label>15.</label><mixed-citation>M. El Jaafari, N. Chuberre, S. Anjuere, and L. Combelles, “Introduction to the 3GPP-defined NTN Standard: A Comprehensive View on the 3GPP Work on NTN,” International Journal of Satellite Communications and Networking, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 220-238, 2023. DOI: 10.1002/sat.1471 eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/sat.1471.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B16"><label>16.</label><mixed-citation>P. Palurik, M. Stusek, D. Moltchanov, K. Mikhaylov, P. Masek, R. Dvorak, T. D. Le, R. Mozny, and J. Hosek, “Potential of mMTC Support over Low Earth Orbit Systems: Challenges and Preliminary Assessment,” in ICUMT 2024; 16th International Congress on Ultra Modern Telecommunications and Control Systems and Workshops, VDE, 2024, pp. 73-79.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B17"><label>17.</label><mixed-citation>G. Masini, P. Reininger, M. El Jaafari, A. Vesely, N. Chuberre, B. Baudry, and J.-M. Houssin, “5G Meets Satellite: Non-terrestrial Network Architecture and 3GPP,” International Journal of Satellite Communications and Networking, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 249-261, 2023. DOI: 10.1002/sat.1456 eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/sat.1456.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B18"><label>18.</label><mixed-citation>M. M. Saad, M. A. Tariq, M. T. R. Khan, and D. Kim, “Non-Terrestrial Networks: An Overview of 3GPP Release 17 &amp; 18,” IEEE Internet of Things Magazine, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 20-26, 2024. DOI: 10.1109/IOTM.001.2300154</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B19"><label>19.</label><mixed-citation>X. Lin, “The Bridge Toward 6G: 5G-Advanced Evolution in 3GPP Release 19,” IEEE Communications Standards Magazine, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 28-35, 2025. DOI: 10.1109/MCOMSTD.0001.2300063</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B20"><label>20.</label><mixed-citation>T. D. Le, M. Stusek, D. Moltchanov, P. Palurik, P. Masek, and J. Hosek, “A Hybrid Analytical Framework for NB-IoT NTN Performance Under Discontinuous LEO Coverage,” IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society, 2026.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B21"><label>21.</label><mixed-citation>J. M. Gongora-Torres, C. Vargas-Rosales, A. Aragón-Zavala, and R. Villalpando-Hernandez, “Elevation Angle Characterization for LEO Satellites: First and Second Order Statistics,” Applied Sciences, vol. 13, no. 7, 2023. DOI: 10.3390/app13074405</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B22"><label>22.</label><mixed-citation>D. Moltchanov, E. Sopin, V. Begishev, A. Samuylov, Y. Koucheryavy, and K. Samouylov, “A Tutorial on Mathematical Modeling of 5G/6G Millimeter Wave and Terahertz Cellular Systems,” IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 1072-1116, 2022. DOI: 10.1109/COMST.2022. 3156207</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B23"><label>23.</label><mixed-citation>ITU-R, “Calculation of free-space attenuation,” International Telecommunication Union, Radiocommunication Sector, Recommendation ITU-R P.525-4, Aug. 2019.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B24"><label>24.</label><mixed-citation>ITU-R, “Attenuation by atmospheric gases and related effects,” ITU-R, Tech. Rep. Recommendation ITU-R P.676-13, Aug. 2022.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B25"><label>25.</label><mixed-citation>3GPP, “Study on New Radio (NR) to support non-terrestrial networks,” 3GPP, Technical Report TR 38.811 V15.4.0, Sep. 2020, Release 15.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B26"><label>26.</label><mixed-citation>ITU-R, “Propagation data required for the design systems in the land mobile-satellite service,” ITU-R, Tech. Rep. Recommendation ITU-R P.681-11, Aug. 2019.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B27"><label>27.</label><mixed-citation>M. N. Gevorkyan, A. V. Demidova, and D. S. Kulyabov, “Comparative analysis of machine learning methods by the example of the problem of determining muon decay,” Discrete and Continuous Models and Applied Computational Science, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 105-119, 2020.</mixed-citation></ref></ref-list></back></article>
