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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Vestnik RUDN. International Relations</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Vestnik RUDN. International Relations</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Вестник Российского университета дружбы народов. Серия: Международные отношения</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">2313-0660</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">2313-0679</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">федеральное государственное автономное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Российский университет дружбы народов имени Патриса Лумумбы» (РУДН)</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">51294</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.22363/2313-0660-2026-26-2-197-215</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="edn">HMRMVZ</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>THEMATIC DOSSIER</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ТЕМАТИЧЕСКОЕ ДОСЬЕ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">Algorithmic Asymmetry: Space, power and Time in the History of Digital Diplomacy</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Алгоритмическая асимметрия: пространство, власть и время в истории цифровой дипломатии</trans-title></trans-title-group><trans-title-group xml:lang="zh"><trans-title/></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8095-7229</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">2152-6679</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Arlyapova</surname><given-names>Elena S.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Арляпова</surname><given-names>Елена Сергеевна</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname></surname><given-names></given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>PhD (Political Science), Researcher</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>кандидат политических наук, научный сотрудник</p></bio><email>elena.s.arlyapova@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8370-8597</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">9664-7471</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Ponomareva</surname><given-names>Elena G.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Пономарева</surname><given-names>Елена Георгиевна</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname></surname><given-names></given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>PhD, Dr. of Sc. (Political Science), Professor, Comparative Politics Department</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>доктор политических наук, профессор кафедры сравнительной политологии</p></bio><email>nastya304@mail.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Institute of System-Strategic Analysis (ISSA)</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Институт системно-стратегического анализа (ИСАН)</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="zh"></institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff2"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Moscow State Institute of International Relations (University) of the Ministry of Foreign Relations of the Russian Federation</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Московский государственный университет международных отношений (МГИМО) МИД России</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="zh"></institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="pub" iso-8601-date="2026-07-08" publication-format="electronic"><day>08</day><month>07</month><year>2026</year></pub-date><volume>26</volume><issue>2</issue><issue-title xml:lang="en">International Relations in the Digital Era: New Opportunities and Traditional Challenges</issue-title><issue-title xml:lang="ru">Международные отношения в цифровую эпоху: новые возможности и традиционные вызовы</issue-title><fpage>197</fpage><lpage>215</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2026-07-14"><day>14</day><month>07</month><year>2026</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; 2026, Arlyapova E.S., Ponomareva E.G.</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; 2026, Арляпова Е.С., Пономарева Е.Г.</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="zh">Copyright ©; 2026, Arlyapova E., Ponomareva E.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2026</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Arlyapova E.S., Ponomareva E.G.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Арляпова Е.С., Пономарева Е.Г.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="zh">Arlyapova E., Ponomareva E.</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/"/><license><ali:license_ref xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0</ali:license_ref></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://journals.rudn.ru/international-relations/article/view/51294">https://journals.rudn.ru/international-relations/article/view/51294</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p>The article provides a historical and analytical study of the development of digital diplomacy as a distinct domain of diplomatic practice, examining it first at the moment of its emergence and then as it evolved within the digital environment in which diplomatic activity takes place. The paper examines the dynamics of terminology: from the earliest conceptualizations to later debates about the substance and scope of digital diplomacy as an independent phenomenon. Particular attention is given to the processes of differentiation and conceptual displacement between “public diplomacy” and “digital diplomacy,” which makes it possible to trace how their hierarchy, semantic contours, and spheres of application have changed over time. The article also proposes an original periodization of the history of digital diplomacy based on a chronological analysis of key events, institutional reforms, and technological shifts from the 1990s to the mid-2020s. This periodization reveals a gradual progression from the experimental stage of MFA-led digital communication to the phase of institutionalization, and subsequently to the stage of algorithmization of diplomatic practices. The concept of algorithmic asymmetry is central to the study. The analysis demonstrates that algorithms not only project influence across time and space with different speeds and densities but also create asymmetric conditions for states with varying levels of adaptability, technological capacity, and digital creativity. Algorithmic asymmetry manifests itself in three dimensions: spatial, temporal, and power-related. In conclusion, the article emphasizes that digital diplomacy evolves within a constantly reconfiguring digital environment, while algorithms increasingly shape the dynamics of international engagement. The resulting ranking of states reflects only a temporary configuration of the field, since under conditions of algorithmic asymmetry, a state’s position is determined by its receptivity to innovation, its capacity for adaptation, its strategic mastery of digital regimes of power, and its ability to translate the properties of digital platforms into a resource of foreign-policy influence.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p>Статья представляет собой историко-аналитическое исследование развития цифровой дипломатии как отдельного направления дипломатических практик на заре его формирования и затем - как цифровой среды осуществления дипломатической деятельности. Раскрыта терминологическая динамика - от ранних попыток осмысления до более поздних дебатов о содержании и границах цифровой дипломатии как самостоятельного феномена. Особое внимание уделено процессу разграничения и смещения понятий «публичной дипломатии» и «цифровой дипломатии», что позволило выявить изменения в их иерархии, смысловых контурах и сферах применения. Предложена авторская периодизация истории цифровой дипломатии, основанная на хронологическом анализе ключевых событий, институциональных реформ и технологических сдвигов с 1990-х до середины 2020-х гг. Периодизация выявляет постепенный переход от экспериментальной стадии цифровой коммуникации внешнеполитических ведомств к этапу институционализации и далее - к фазе алгоритмизации дипломатических практик. Центральное место в исследовании отведено концепции алгоритмической асимметрии. Показано, что алгоритмы не только проецируют влияние во времени и пространстве с иной скоростью и плотностью, но и создают асимметричные условия для государств с разными уровнями адаптивности, техно логического потенциала и развития и цифровой креативности. Алгоритмическая асимметрия проявляется в трех измерениях: пространственном, временном и властном. В заключении отмечается, что цифровая дипломатия развивается в условиях постоянной реконфигурации цифрового пространства, а алгоритмы наращивают влияние в международном взаимодействии. Сформированный рейтинг государств демонстрирует лишь временное состояние поля, поскольку в условиях алгоритмической асимметрии позиция государства определяется его восприимчивостью к инновациям, способностью к адаптации, стратегическому освоению цифровых режимов власти и умением превращать особенности цифровых платформ в ресурс внешнеполитического влияния.</p></trans-abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="zh"/><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>digital diplomacy</kwd><kwd>power and communication</kwd><kwd>digitalization</kwd><kwd>information security</kwd><kwd>technological mediation</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>цифровая дипломатия</kwd><kwd>власть и коммуникация</kwd><kwd>цифровизация</kwd><kwd>информационная безопасность</kwd><kwd>технологическая медиация</kwd><kwd>публичная дипломатия</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group/></article-meta><fn-group/></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Adesina, O. 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