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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Vestnik RUDN. International Relations</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Vestnik RUDN. International Relations</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Вестник Российского университета дружбы народов. Серия: Международные отношения</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">2313-0660</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">2313-0679</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">федеральное государственное автономное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Российский университет дружбы народов имени Патриса Лумумбы» (РУДН)</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">49506</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.22363/2313-0660-2026-26-1-62-76</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="edn">TCJXVU</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>THEMATIC DOSSIER</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ТЕМАТИЧЕСКОЕ ДОСЬЕ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject>Review Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">The Applicability of International Humanitarian Law to Cyber Operations: A Review of Russian and Western Approaches</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Проблема применимости международного гуманитарного права к кибероперациям: обзор российского и западных подходов</trans-title></trans-title-group><trans-title-group xml:lang="zh"><trans-title/></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6705-5303</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">6736-6554</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Kozyulin</surname><given-names>Vadim B.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Козюлин</surname><given-names>Вадим Борисович</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname></surname><given-names></given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>PhD (Political Sciences), Chief Research Fellow, Center for Military-Political Studies, Institute of Contemporary International Studies; Associate Professor at the Department of Public Administration</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>кандидат политических наук, главный научный сотрудник Центра военно-политических исследований, Институт актуальных международных проблем; доцент кафедры государственного управления</p></bio><email>v.kozyulin@dipacademy.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Дипломатическая академия МИД РФ</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="zh"></institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="pub" iso-8601-date="2026-04-03" publication-format="electronic"><day>03</day><month>04</month><year>2026</year></pub-date><volume>26</volume><issue>1</issue><issue-title xml:lang="en">Strategic Stability, Global and Regional Security</issue-title><issue-title xml:lang="ru">Стратегическая стабильность, глобальная и региональная безопасность</issue-title><fpage>62</fpage><lpage>76</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2026-04-05"><day>05</day><month>04</month><year>2026</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; 2026, Kozyulin V.B.</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; 2026, Козюлин В.Б.</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="zh">Copyright ©; 2026, Kozyulin V.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2026</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Kozyulin V.B.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Козюлин В.Б.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="zh">Kozyulin V.</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/"/><license><ali:license_ref xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0</ali:license_ref></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://journals.rudn.ru/international-relations/article/view/49506">https://journals.rudn.ru/international-relations/article/view/49506</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p>The relevance of this study stems from the fact that cyber operations have become an integral element of contemporary armed conflicts, while the applicability of international humanitarian law (IHL) to the digital environment remains contested and is only partially regulated. In practice, this is reflected by the lack of well-established criteria for classifying specific cyber operations as an “attack,” a “use of force,” or as unfriendly yet formally lawful conduct. Given the transboundary nature of information and communication technologies, the anonymity of actors, and the involvement of non-state entities, there is still no common approach to qualifying cyber activities or protecting civilian infrastructure, which complicates the development of a coordinated international response to cyber incidents. The problem is further exacerbated by the fact that many cyber operations do not cause physical destruction, but rather result in a loss of functionality of systems, calling into question traditional understandings of violence and harm under IHL. The methodology of the study combines a comparative legal analysis of official national positions, United Nations documents, and specialized doctrinal sources, with a systematic interpretation of IHL norms as applied to new forms of armed confrontation. The research employs doctrinal legal analysis, content analysis of governmental doctrines and expert commentaries, as well as elements of case studies focusing on representative cyber incidents, including operations targeting critical infrastructure and dual-use information systems. This article contributes to the literature by providing an integrated examination of three pivotal dimensions of the application of IHL to cyber operations: digital sovereignty, the classification of cyberattacks, and the distinction between military and civilian objectives in cyberspace. For the first time within a single analytical framework, it juxtaposes Russian and Western approaches to sovereignty in the digital domain, to the thresholds for qualifying cyber activities as “attacks,” and to the legal status of data and dual-use objects for humanitarian protection purposes. The findings demonstrate that divergent national approaches to digital sovereignty and attribution impede the development of common criteria for applying the IHL principles of distinction, proportionality and precaution to cyber operations that do not involve physical destruction. The article therefore argues for clarifying the status of data as objects protected under IHL and for adapting traditional categories of military and civilian objectives to the operating conditions of critical information infrastructure.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p>Актуальность темы исследования обусловлена тем, что кибероперации становятся неотъемлемым элементом современных вооруженных конфликтов, при этом применимость международного гуманитарного права (МГП) к цифровой среде остается дискуссионной. На практике это проявляется в отсутствии устоявшихся критериев, позволяющих однозначно отнести конкретное кибервоздействие к «нападению», «использованию силы» или к недружественным, но формально правомерным действиям. В условиях трансграничности информационно-коммуникационных технологий (ИКТ), анонимности действий и вовлечения негосударственных акторов отсутствует единый подход к квалификации кибердеяний и защите гражданской инфраструктуры, что затрудняет выработку согласованной международной реакции на киберинциденты. Дополнительную сложность создает то, что значительная часть киберопераций не приводит к физическому разрушению, а выражается в потере функциональности систем, что ставит под вопрос традиционные представления о насилии и ущербе в МГП. Методологически исследование опирается на сравнительно-правовой анализ официальных национальных позиций, документов ООН и специализированных доктринальных источников, а также на системное толкование норм МГП применительно к новым видам вооруженного противоборства. Используются методы юридико-догматического анализа, контент--анализ государственных доктрин и экспертных комментариев, а также элементы кейс-стади в части рассмотрения типичных киберинцидентов, включая операции против объектов критической инфраструктуры и информационных систем двойного назначения. Научная новизна исследования состоит в комплексном раскрытии трех узловых аспектов применения МГП к кибероперациям: цифрового суверенитета, квалификации кибератак и разграничения военных и гражданских целей в киберпространстве. Впервые в единой рамке сопоставлены российский и западные подходы к понятию суверенитета в цифровой среде, к порогам отнесения кибервоздействий к «нападению», а также к статусу данных и объектов двойного назначения в контексте гуманитарной защиты. Полученные результаты показывают, что разнородность национальных подходов к цифровому суверенитету создает препятствия для выработки согласованных критериев применения принципов различения, соразмерности и предосторожности к кибероперациям, не сопровождающимся физическим разрушением. Обоснована необходимость уточнения статуса данных как объектов защиты по МГП и адаптации традиционных категорий военных и гражданских целей к условиям функционирования критической информационной инфраструктуры.</p></trans-abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="zh"/><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>information and communication technologies</kwd><kwd>information law</kwd><kwd>digital sovereignty</kwd><kwd>cyber warfare</kwd><kwd>international security</kwd><kwd>critical infrastructure</kwd><kwd>humanitarian protection</kwd><kwd>attribution of cyber incidents</kwd><kwd>civilian population</kwd><kwd>dual-use</kwd><kwd>legal regime of data</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>информационно-коммуникационные технологии</kwd><kwd>информационное право</kwd><kwd>цифровой суверенитет</kwd><kwd>кибервойна</kwd><kwd>международная безопасность</kwd><kwd>критическая инфраструктура</kwd><kwd>гуманитарная защита</kwd><kwd>атрибуция киберинцидентов</kwd><kwd>гражданское население</kwd><kwd>двойное назначение</kwd><kwd>правовой режим данных</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group/></article-meta><fn-group/></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Adu, Y. N., &amp; Ramich, M. S. 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