KARAKORAM HIMALAYAS AND CENTRAL ASIA. THE BUDDHIST CONNECTION

The Karakoram-Himalayan region is the cradle from where ancient Indian culture including Buddhism spread to different directions in Central Asia, East Asia and South East Asia. Gilgit, Chilas, Chitral, Baltistan, Ladakh, Zanskar and other frontier areas have been important mileposts on the famous Silk Route. Buddhist savants from India contributed to the spread of Buddhism in Central Asia and East Asia. One of the eminent scholars was Kumarajiva (344–413 AD) who broke political, geographical, cultural and linguistic barriers for propagation of Buddhism. Hieun Tsiang mentions four important centres of Buddhism in Central Asia – Shan-shan (Kroraina), Khotan, Kucha and Turfan. Kashmir played an important role in introducing Buddhism to Khotan, which in turn played a key role in the transmission of Buddhism to China. Several important places on the Silk Route system such as Kucha, Balkh, Bamiyan, Khotan, Kashgar etc. developed into important centres of Buddhism when parts of Central Asia and north-western India were integrated into a single kingdom under the Kushans.)

On his return journey to Central Asia, Hieun Tsiang found in Kashgar "hundreds of Buddhist monasteries with over 1,000 priests all following Saravastivada school" [17. P. 290]. In Yarkand there were "some tens of Buddhist monasteries and about 100 priests, besides numerous stupas in memory of Indian arhats who had passed away" [17. P. 293]. And in Khotan, "The system of writing was found to have been taken from that of India. The people were Buddhists and there were above 100 monasteries, with over 5000 priests, chiefl y Mahayanists. Arhat Vairochana had come from Kashmir to propagate Buddhism here" [17. P. 295].
Charles Willeman, an eminent scholar of Buddhism from Belgium, refers to Jibin -a term in Chinese, which according to him has been the territory of Udyanda, i.e., the Gilgit area of pre-Kushan times and which gradually developed to encompass the whole Gandhara cultural area and the northwestern India including Kashmir [18. P. 139]. It was during Kashishka's rule that Kashmir became the most important part of Jibin [18. P.140]. Willeman asserts that "China's Buddhism mainly came from non-Kasmira Jibin, certainly the fi rst centuries CE before Kumarajiva" [18. P. 140].
Palola Sahis, a local ruling dynasty of Gilgit which reigned from sixth to eighth centuries AD, patronized the production of Buddhist Sanskrit manuscripts and bronze sculptures and carving of Buddhist images and inscriptions on rocks in the Karakoram Himalayan region. Oskar von Hinuber has reconstructed the chronology and genealogy of Palola Sahis [for further details see : 8]. Names of Palola Sahi rulers, their family members and courtiers are mentioned among the donors in the colophons of Buddhist manuscripts discovered in the Karakoram Himalayan region [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][77][78][79][80][81][82][83]. The dynasty and their court offi cials would "participate in the Mahayan 'Cult of the Book' in which devotees made religious offerings by having many Buddhist sutras written down" [11. P. 172]. One Palola ruler Navasurendra had got inscribed his imperial titles in a Sanskrit stone inscription at Hatun in the Ishkoman valley written in the Proto-Sarada script in about 671 AD. [3. P. 226-231]. DIALOGUE OF CIVILIZATIONS Discoveries of Buddhist Sanskrit manuscripts dating between second and early eighth centuries AD in Gilgit region provide evidence of the usage of Sanskrit as the Buddhist literary language during that period [11. P. 46  The drawings of stupas, Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and narrative scenes, inscriptions on rocks are mainly located at river crossings or on the routes below mountain passes, which were traversed by traders, travelers or devotees. According to Jason Neelis, "the largest concentrations or Buddhist petroglyphs are located south of Hunza-Haldeikish and Alam Bridge in the upper Indus valley between Chilas and Shaital" [11. P. 278]. There are over one thousands inscriptions are seven hundred petroglyphs located at Shaital [11. P. 279], from where paths led through the Darel and Tangir valleys to Gilgit, Chitral and onwards to Badakshan. Whereas drawings of 138 stupas have been found and Shaital, over 130 such drawings at Hodar [11. P. 280-281] are evidence of Buddhist presence in this region. Petroglyphs and inscriptions at Helor Das, Hodar and Dadam Das were made by local devotees as well as travelers and traders, as their religious offerings" [11. P.280-281] Many Buddhist petroglyphs are reported to be "concentrated near the modern bridge between Chilas and Thalpan" [11. P. 283]. The Buddhist petroglyphs, drawings of stupas and Buddha narratives at sites around Chilas and Thalpan are ascribed to local patrons named Kuberavahana and Sinhote, who are reported to have donated these "religious offerings" [11. P. 284]. A site at Shing Nala, located about 30 kms. upstream from Thalpan which has a number of Buddhist petroglyphs including 156 stupas, is believed to have "functioned as a pilgrimage place," where devotees would make their own stupa drawings [11. P. 284-285]. Existence of many Khorosthi and Brahmi graffi ti written on rocks near Alam bridge [11. P.285] indicates that the Buddhist travelers, monks and devotees transited through this area recording their personal names and titles, thereby pointing to the transmission of Buddhism through this re-gion to Central Asia Notwithstanding its diffi cult terrain of high and cold mountains and very limited material resources, the Karakoram Himalayan region acted as the transit zone for transmission of Buddhism to Central Asia. The traders, monks and local patrons particularly the Palola Sahi dynasty of 7 th -8 th Century AD, contributed to the establishment of Buddhist presence in the region.

Pic. 3. Petroglyph depicting a stupa with attendant (8th century AD), Chilas
Gilgit remains an important archeological site and reports of digging the ruins and illicit trading in manuscripts and antiquities have been coming in. When the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) team visited Gilgit in 2004 to investigate and document the activities of Martin Schoyen, the Norwegian multi-millionaire for its fi lm titled Skriftsamleren (The Manuscript Collector), Mozaffar Ali, the representative of the local administration in Gilgit while standing in the Gilgit ruins told the NRK [9. P. 1-8]: "Everyone knows that this is a historically important area. If the authorities had protected it, we could have had a museum here. But now there is nothing to stop the Pathans, the Europeans and others from enriching themselves. They have destroyed our cultural heritage." The diversity and density of rock carvings (about 50,000 carvings and 5,000 inscriptions) [7. P. 1] in Gilgit-Baltistan turned the area into one of the most important petroglyph sites in the world. Unfortunately over 30,000 carvings and inscriptions are doomed to be inundated due to the construction of Diamer-Bhasha dam. According to Prof. Hauptmann of Heidelberg, who has been working on the heritage of the area for quite some time, "37,051 carvings on 5,928 boulders will be inundated" [15]. The inscriptions are in Brahmi, Sogdian, Chinese and Tibetan languages and some 80 per cent are in Brahmi script. Hauptmann added that some 3,000 stupas and similar number of drawings would be submerged under the dam [15]. That Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) of Pakistan, which is responsible for construction of the dam, and its contractors Rogers Kolachi Khan and Associates (RKK) have realized the intensity of damage to the region's heritage, there is hope of some arrangements being made to preserve these carvings. Reports have also come in about Pakistan government's plans to construct two museums to preserve 33,000 rock carvings and Buddhist fi gures discovered from the site of construction of Bhasha dam [6]. Shakeel Durrani, former Chairman of WAPDA was reported to have confi rmed the plan to "construct two museums one each in Gilgit and Chilas to preserve thousands of rock carvings" [6]. However, no such steps have been taken so far.
Results. Obviously it was through the Karakoram-Himalaya region, which was the crossroads of ancient routes and cultures and attracted travelers, traders and pilgrims, that Buddhism was transmitted to Central Asia and beyond. Several important places on the Silk Route system such as Kucha, Balkh, Bamiyan, Khotan, Kashgar etc. developed into important centres of Buddhism when parts of Central Asia and north-western India were integrated into a single kingdom under the Kushans. Being situated in the very center of Central Asia and deriving its name from Sanskrit word Vihara (monastery), Bukhara retains its reputation as the holiest city with hundreds of mosques and madrasas. The Chor Minar madrasa at Bukhara is a crude and miniature form of Indian Char Minar at Hyderabad. Masjid Kalyan and Mir Arab madrasa in Bukhara continue to be the centers of important religious and social activity. Kalyan Minar is a prominent feature of Bukhara. One tall pole with a yak tail in the Kalyan minaret is reminiscent of old traditions.
Similarly Samarkand, situated on the bank of the Zarafshan river, was the very center of Silk Route system and a major urban center of erstwhile Sogdhian empire. It was the capital of Tamerlane (1372 to 1402 AD). The Registan Square at fi rst sight evokes the feeling of awe and splendour. The grand and imposing scale of three madrassas that form the three sides of the square, their exteriors decorated by intricate calligraphy and mosaic, make Registan a unique sight in Central Asia. That the main gate having two lions with sun painted on its top, is still called Sher Dor, is ample testimony to close historical ties with India. In the Bibi Khanam mosque, in Samarkand people are still seen to be tying cotton tags to the mulberry tree asking for a boon, reminding us of similar practices in India.
The local museum in Chimkent, a town in southern Kazakhstan has a number of artifacts, particularly farming tools, household items, yurts, stone items etc. which demonstrate close resemblance to the lifestyle in the Western Himalayas. Some Zoroastrian artifacts are also preserved here. It would be relevant to mention about the artifacts preserved in Sairam, another ancient Kazakh town on the Silk Route. There is an ancient pillar with Sanskrit inscriptions in Brahmi and Kharoshthi script in a local mosque at Sairam, which is also a mausoleum of the mother of the famed saint of Turkestan, Ahmad Shah Yasavi. In the small local museum, one found another such pillar, old plough, spinning wheel, old MSS in Arabic script and other antiquities. One such pillar is reported to be in the Hermitage Museum, Leningrad. Recently an ancient Buddhist site has been discovered in Sairam, where a lamp of XII century was found. The mausoleum of Aisha Bibi (12th century) in Dzhambol (Taraz) has a twelve-cornered dome like the Indian temple roof tops. Symbols of octagon and swastika are found to be engraved in some stone pillars. At another mausoleum of Karakhan (in Taraz), stone images and human fi gures were stored.

Pic. 6. Buddha images and inscriptions, Tamgaly-Tas, Kazakhstan (Drawing by Chokan Valikanov, 1856)
Talas is the birthplace of Kyrgyz epic hero Manas and famous Kyrgyz winter, Changiz Aitmatov. Large stone pillars and some stones with human fi gures locally known as Bal Bals which have been preserved in the Manas precincts, stand tes-timony to the pre-Islamic heritage of Kyrgyzs. Manas has become the symbol of renaissance of the Kyrgyz cultural and historical heritage in independent Kyrgyzstan. The hillock locally named Karal Chaku overlooking the Manas mausoleum is considered sacred by the Kyrgyzs universally. Top of the Manas mausoleum is also like that of Indian temple top rather than being dome shaped. Large number of local people, both young and old, throng the place as pilgrims and climb the hill top. No alcohol is served or taken within the Manas complex. Ancient tradition of worshipping hillocks, trees, rivers, sun, images and legendary heroes continues in Kyrgyzstan. Buddhism was prevalent in Kyrgyzstan mainly in urban centers and towns along the Silk Route. That the symbol of sun occupies a central place in the national fl ag of Kyrgyzstan, only reinforces the view that Kyrgyzs continue to rever nature and its elements. Ancient town of Tokmak is the site of 21 metre high Buran tower. Here one comes across the remnants of pre-Islamic and Buddhist heritage of Balasaghun which used to be a fl ourishing trading and cultural center on the Silk Route. This historic site, spread over an area of 36 sq. kms. was declared as the Balasaghun National Park in 1977. The Buran tower was fi rst restored in 1967-1968 and again in 1978. Whereas this tower was constructed in 11th century AD to commemorate the ascendancy of Islam in the region, the totems (stone fi gures locally called Bal Bals) lying throughout this area act as a reminder to the pre-Islamic past. These totems, the sculptures carved out in the likeness of the deceased persons, were erected in the memory of the dead. Interestingly, this tradition still continues albeit in a modernized form of erecting concrete graves with stone pillars carrying portraits of the dead. This peculiar tradition would be an anathema in the puritan Islamic countries. About 8 kms. away from the Buran tower, there is the Ak Beshim archeological site standing testimony to the ancient Buddhist settlements in this area.
Fragments of Brahmi and Kharosthi script on birch bark were found in Krasnorechensk temple. These texts are believed to have originated from Kashmirthe main center for copying of Sanskrit MSS. Signifi cantly birch bark MSS in Brahmi/ Kharosthi found throughout Central Asia (Kafyr Kalan in southern Tajikistan, Merv and Bairam Ali in southern Turkmenistan and Zang Tepe in southern Uzbekistan) are reported to have similar handwritings [16. P. 79]. Similarly, Naveket temples are similar to sites discovered at Ajina Tepe, Fayaz Tepe, Kara Tepe and Merv in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Findings of bronze and stone artifacts, ceramic bowls modeled with Boddhisattvas etc. in ancient sites, testifi es to the location of monasteries along the Silk Route and also to the constant fl ow of Indian traders, artists, craftsmen, monks and exponents from the Indian Himalayas [16. P. 80].
According to Kyrgyz archeologists, Voropoeva and Goryacheva "direct contacts between northern India and Tien Shan in VIII-IX cc, represented the golden age of Buddhist-Hindu culture in medieval Kyrgyzstan" [16. P. 73]. Soviet archeologist, Bernshtam discovered ) at a number of "ancient sites of Chui valley -Ak Beshim, Krasnaya Rechka, Karadjigach, Novopavlovka, Sokuluk etc., works in the style of Gandhara art, which indicate the main contours of historical-culture relationship among Tein shan, Eastern Turkestan and India since fi rst century upto XII century" [16. P. 74-75]. Bernshtam found "powerful infl uence of Buddhist culture of northern India on the culture of Semirechye" [16. P. 75]. Other Soviet archeologists, Kyzlasov and Zyablin excavated in 1950s two Buddhist temples in Ak Beshim [16. P. 75]. Both temples were found to be burnt and their sculpture destroyed around VIII century, after which they were not restored [16. P. 76]. Kozhemyaho (1961Kozhemyaho ( -1963 and Goryacheva andPeregudova (1980-1988) carried investigation of two other temple sites dated VIII century in Navekat (Krasnorechensk) settlement [16. P.75]. In 1961 a sculpture of sleeping Buddha was excavated here, which is reportedly lying at a museum in Moscow. A Kashmiri bronze sculpture of Buddhisatva Avalokiteswara of VIII century was also reportedly found here [16. P. 77]. Many such Buddhist images (VII-VIII century) and Brahmi/Kharosthi MSS found in Naveket are housed in the Archeological Museum in the Kyrgyz Slovanic university, Bishkek and Museum of Institute of History, Kyrgyz Academy of Sciences, Bishkek. However, the ancient sites at Ak Beshim and Naveket, need urgent attention as these are lying unprotected with adjoining lands being used for agriculture. These ancient ruins need to be restored and conserved properly. Archeological fi nds in Kazakhstan point to the introduction of Buddhism in southern Kazakhstan around 7 th -8 th century AD and its spread in different parts of the country upto 18 th century AD. A European scholar Dr. Jean-Marc Deom, has drawn attention to the risk of damage to the petroglyph rock engravings of Buddha images and inscriptions at Tamgaly-Tas, about 25 kms north of Lake Kapchigai along the right of the Ili river. There are three main stone blocks which have large size images of Buddhist deities and inscription in Tibetan, Pali and Mongol scripts. Kazakh ethnographer and writer Chokan Valikhanov, who visited the site in 1856 was the fi rst to study and document the Tamgaly-Tas petroglyphs by drawing some sketches of these rocks [for further details see : 4]. In 1981, the Alma Ata Regional Council of National Deputies decided to recognize and protect the Tamgaly-Tas petroglyphs. However the site remained vulnerable to vandalism, as some parts of the fi gures are reported to have been damaged by throwing stones [4].
There are several other archeological sites pointing to the existence of Buddhist monasteries in various parts of Kazakhstan. Antonovka, which is located some 500 kms. from Almaty towards the east, near the Jungarski Alatau mountain, was excavated by K.M. Baipakov in 1998-1999. This Buddhist monastery is in ruins now. Other sites include monasteries of Sumbe (in Kegen district), Ablaikit (in Semipalatinsk province) and Kyzilkent located 250 kms. east of Karaganda [14. P. 11].
At Hazrat Afak Khoja's shrine, situated about 5 kms. away from Kashgar, which was built around 1639-1640 AD and constructed in Uyghur style, one fi nds extensive usage of Swastika and lotus symbols in tile work on the exterior of this shrine. It was declared as a Special Protective Site of Historical Relic of China on 13 January 1988. Robert Shaw who visited Kashgar in 1868-1869 AD, had found the popular shrine of Hazrat Afaq decorated with yak tails, fl ags and numerous huge horns of ovis poli [13]. During this author's visit to this shrine in June 2010, I found a Muslim priest with some of his devotees lighting a lamp and performing some traditional rituals and lighting lamps. Khotan has been the most important commercial and Buddhist center on the southern limb of Silk Route having had strong connections with India. Khotan has three main ancient sites -Ak Sepul, Yotkan and Malik Awat. Relics and artifacts found by Stein in Yotkan are now lying in the British Museum. However, some antiquities from Yotkan and some other sites are placed in a shabbily arranged local museum at Khotan. Major Buddhist sites in Xinjiang have been stripped of their treasures, which were carried away by foreign archeologists to museums outside China. On a visit to a small local museum in Bachu (Maralbashi), one found antiquities discovered in the desert between Maralbashi and Aksu, stored there. These relics included Buddhist fi gures, statues of monkey god, wooden tablets with Brahmi inscriptions etc. About 45 kms. further from Bachu, one saw remains of ancient Buddhist site on the Tok Serai hills. There are still existing 3 to 4 stone images of Buddha (2×1), though lying defaced. Kucha has been yet another important center of Buddhism in Central Asia. On a visit to the famous Buddhist caves at Kumtura, Kyzyl and Kyzyl Gaha, one found paintings and frescoes of Buddha in different forms, monkey gods and a fi gure with a fl ute. Only 230 Buddhist caves out of original 330 are still in tact in the Kucha complex. The British and German archeologists having removed the paintings in these caves to their respective countries, only 8 caves are now open to public view. Cave No. 17 has elaborate murals depicting Indian characteristics. A statue of Kumarajiva is erected in the Kucha cultural complex, which is well maintained. These frescoes need to be reconstructed and preserved. Korla, which is the new and modern oil city of Xinjiang, was an important trading center having economic links with both China in the east and Central Asia in the west. On a visit to the local museum in the Korla town, one found several Buddhist artifacts, an image of Tara which was excavated in Yenchi county of Korla and also several folios in Mongolian, Tibetan and Kharosthi scripts. There was one round stone with inscriptions of Om Mane Padma Om, still preserved here. In Turfan lie the ancient cities of Jiohe and Gaochang, where one can see the traces of ancient Buddhist monastic establishment. In the famed Bezeklik caves of Thousand Buddha near the Flaming Mountains in Turfan, there are few remnants of the paintings of Buddha. Images of Buddha, monkey gods etc. have now been recreated by the Chinese authorities to attract tourists. The local museum at Turfan contains some painted pots, two small Buddha statues and some mummies.
Conclusion. The task of identifi cation, location, documentation and dissemination of such a rich historico-cultural legacy, therefore, assumes a priority. It is high time that concrete steps are taken towards the preservation of thousands of rock carvings, petroglyphs, inscriptions and images in the Karakoram Himalayan region to save them from being obliterated.